Carbohydrates

What are the three basic necessities of any ​human being​? Food, shelter
and clothing? And did you know that carbohydrates are the source of
all three? It will be safe to say that without carbohydrates life as we
known it would not exist on planet earth. Now let us learn a bit more
about the chemical properties of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates

The term carbohydrate is itself a combination of the “hydrates of

carbon”. They are also known as ​“Saccharides”​ which is a derivation
of the Greek word “Sakcharon” meaning sugar. The definition of
carbohydrates in chemistry is as follows:

“Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones or

substances which give these on hydrolysis are termed as
carbohydrates”.

Some of the most common carbohydrates that we come across in our

daily lives are in form of sugars. These sugars can be in form of
Glucose, Sucrose, Fructose, Cellulose, Maltose etc.
Browse more Topics under Biomolecule
● Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Polysaccharides
● Structure of Proteins
● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

General Formula of Carbohydrate

The general formula for carbohydrate is C​x​(H​2​O)​y. ​Although, it must
be remembered that this is just a general formula. There are various
exceptions to this that we will see. Let us take a look at Acetic Acid
which is CH3COOH. Now although this will fit in the general formula
of carbohydrate i.e. C​x​(H​2​O)​y, ​we know that acetic ​acid​ is not a
carbohydrate.

Formaldehyde (HCHO) also falls under this category of this general

formula but is also not a carbohydrate. And on the other hand,
Rhamnose (C​6​H​12​O​6​) which is very much a carbohydrate but does not
follow the general formula.

Video on Biomolecules

Classification of Carbohydrates

The main classification of carbohydrate is done on the basis of

hydrolysis. This classification is as follow:

1. Monosaccharides:​ These are the simplest form of carbohydrate

that cannot be hydrolyzed any further. They have the general
formula of (CH​2​O)​n​. Some common examples are glucose,
Ribose etc.
2. Oligosaccharides:​ Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis yield two
to ten smaller ​units​ or monosaccharides are oligosaccharides.
They are a large category and further divides into various
subcategories.
3. Disaccharides:​ A further classification of oligosaccharides,
these give two units of the same or different monosaccharides
on hydrolysis. For example, sucrose on hydrolysis gives one
molecule​ of glucose and fructose each. Whereas maltose on
hydrolysis gives two molecules of only glucose,
4. Trisaccharides​: Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis gives three
molecules of monosaccharides, whether same or different. An
example is Raffinose.
5. Tetrasaccharides:​ And as the name suggests this carbohydrate
on hydrolysis give four molecules of monosaccharides.
Stachyose is an example.
6. Polysaccharides​: The final category of carbohydrates. These
give a large ​number​ of monosaccharides when they undergo
hydrolysis, These carbohydrates are not sweet in taste and are
also known as non-sugars. Some common examples are starch,
glycogen etc.
Importance of Carbohydrates

Now as we previously discussed, carbohydrates are absolutely

essential for life on the planet. Let us take a more detailed look at the
importance of carbohydrates.

● Carbohydrates are responsible for storing chemical energy in

living organisms​. You must hear all the time when athletes
carbo-load before a game. This is so they can provide
themselves with extra energy. They are also an important
constituent for supporting tissues in plants and even in some
animals.
● As I am sure you are already aware of photosynthesis. It is the
process by which plants utilize solar energy to generate ​energy
for themselves and ​food​ for us. Through this process, plants fix
CO2 and synthesize carbohydrate. Let us take a look at the
chemical reaction occurring during photosynthesis.

x​(CO2) + ​y​(H2O) + Solar energy ⇒ C​x​ (H2O)​y​ + O​2

 ● So carbohydrates due to photosynthesis are the repository of
solar energy in ​plants​, Then when plants or animals metabolize
the said carbohydrate this energy releases. The metabolizing
equation is just the reverse of the photosynthesis equation

C​x​ (H2O)​y​ + O2 ⇒ ​x​(CO2) + ​y​(H2O) + Energy

Solved Example for You

Q: Which one of the following is an example of non-reducing sugar?

a. Sucrose
b. Lactose
c. Maltose
d. Cellobiose

Ans: The correct answer is “A”. Sucrose is not a reducing sugar

because it lacks the ability to form either aldehyde or a ketone in a
basic solution. Sucrose’s anomeric carbon is not free since this carbon
is used to link fructose and glucose together. Therefore it cannot open
up the ring structure and react with the reagent.
Monosaccharides

We all consume some form of ​carbohydrates​ via our food every day.
The biggest source of carbs for us is through sugars. Monosaccharides
are the simplest form of sugars found in innumerable common ​food
items such as honey, cane sugar, fruits. Let us have a detailed look at
monosaccharides.
​Monosaccharide

We have already learned about carbohydrates and what constitutes a

carbohydrate. Now monosaccharides are nothing but the simplest form
or classification of ​carbohydrates​. They are hence known as the most
basic unit of carbohydrates. They are defined as any carbohydrates (or
sugars) that cannot be hydrolyzed any further to give simpler sugars.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
● Disaccharides
● Polysaccharides
● Structure of Proteins
● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

Types of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides have two broad classifications on the basis of the
functional group present in them. So if they contain an aldehyde group
they are known as ​“aldose”.​ And if they contain a keto group we call
them ​“ketose”​. There is also additional classification on the number of
carbon atoms​ each ​molecule​ consists of. This following table will
make the names easy to remember

Number of Carbon
Aldehyde Ketone
Atoms

3 Aldotriose Ketotriose

4 Aldotetrose Ketotetrose

5 Aldopentose Ketopentose

6 Aldohexose Ketohexose

7 Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

Structure of Monosaccharides
The ​chemical formula​ that most monosaccharides have is C​x​(H2O)​y​,
where generally x≥ 3. The molecule is always formed by three
elements and three elements only: Carbon (C), ​Hydrogen (H)​ and
Oxygen​ (O). The molecule of monosaccharides is very small and
compact in size. This is another reason we call monosaccharides
simple sugars.

Glucose

The most abundant monosaccharide found in ​nature​ is in fact glucose.

It is the most abundant organic compound on earth. We can find
glucose in varies fruits, honey and even in starch and cane sugar. We
obtain a large part of the energy in our bodies from glucose through
the foods we eat. It is an aldohexose, which means it has six carbon
atoms in its molecule. Its chemical formula is C​6​H​12​O​6

We obtain glucose mainly from two sources which are starch and
sucrose. Let us look at how we can prepare glucose from these sources

● On a large and commercial scale glucose is prepared from

hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4. The
chemical reaction​ is as follows

(C​6​H​10​O​5​) + n (H2O) ————-> n ( C​6​H​12​O​6​ )

Starch Glucose

● Also, another way of preparing glucose, with fructose as a joint

or by-product, is to boil sucrose in dilute HCl or even H2SO4
in an alcoholic solution. This chemical reaction is as follows

C​12​H​22​O​11​ + H​2​O ————> C​6​H​12​O​6​ + C​6​H​12​O​6

 Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Fructose

Fructose is a simple ketonic monosaccharide. We mostly find fructose

in plants and their fruits, flowers and root vegetables, hence earning it
a moniker of ​fruit sugar. ​It is also abundantly present in honey and
corn syrup. Generally, fructose bonds with glucose to form a
disaccharide we know as sucrose. Fructose was first discovered by a
French chemist Augustin – Pierre Debrunfaut.

The chemical formula of fructose is also C​6​H​12​O​6​ but the bonding of

fructose is very different than that of glucose. Fructose has a cyclic
structure. The structure is an intramolecular hemiacetal. It has its
carbonyl group at its number two carbon (its a ketone function group).
In its cyclic form, it (generally) forms a five-member ring which we
call a Furanose ring.
Solved Example for You

Q: Which one of the following is the reagent used to identify glucose?

a. neutral FeCl​3
b. CHCl​3
c. Ammonical AGNO​3
d. C​2​H​5​ONa

Sol: The correct answer is option “c”. We use Tollen’s reagent to

identify Glucose. Glucose contains aldehyde group and is oxidised by
ammonical AGNO​3​.
Disaccharides

We generally associate sugar with glucose. But did you know the table
sugar we use every day is not glucose? It is, in fact, a disaccharide
known as sucrose. Let us have a detailed look at disaccharides and
their ​structures​ and properties.

Disaccharides
Disaccharides are sugars (​carbohydrate molecules​) that form when
two simple sugars i.e. monosaccharides combine to form a
disaccharide.

Learn about ​Monosaccharides in more detail here​.

Cyclic monosaccharides react with ​alcohols​ to form acetals and ketals.

Sometimes this alcohol is actually a carbohydrate since they function
very similarly to alcohols. So when this happens individual
monosaccharides link together to make an acetal. This linkage is
known as ​glycosidic linkage.

This linkage is an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a ​water

​ hen two monosaccharides are linked together by
molecule.​ W
glycosidic linkage the resulting ​product​ is a disaccharide. Now let us
take a look at some common and important disaccharides.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
● Monosaccharides
● Polysaccharides
● Structure of Proteins
 ● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

Sucrose

(Source: Wikipedia)

This is the most important disaccharide. It is popularly known as ​table

sugar. ​Sucrose is found in all photosynthetic plants. It is commercially
obtained from sugarcane and sugar beets via an industrial ​process​. Let
us take a look at some ​chemical​ properties of sucrose

● The molecular ​formula​ of sucrose is C​12​H​22​O​11​.

 ● If sucrose goes through acid catalysed hydrolysis it will give
one mole of D-Glucose and one mole of D-Fructose.
● The chemical structure of sucrose comprises of α form of
glucose and β form of fructose
● The glycosidic linkage is α linkage because the molecule
formation is in α orientation
● Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. As you can see from the
structure it is combined (linked) at the hemiacetal ​oxygen​ and
does not have a free hemiacetal hydroxide
● Since has no free hemiacetal hydroxide it does not show
mutarotation (α to β conversion). Sucrose also does not form
osazones for the same reason.
● We can prove the structural formula of sucrose by hydrolysing
it with α-glycosidase enzymes which only hydrolyses α
glucose. This test is positive for sucrose.

Did you know, Carbohydrates are the sources of Food, Shelter and
Clothing? Learn more about ​the importance of Carbohydrates here​.

Lactose
 (Source: MilkFacts.info)

This is a disaccharide you may already be familiar with. Lactose is the

primary ingredient found in the milk of all mammals. Unlike the
majority of saccharides, lactose is not sweet to taste. Lactose consists
of one galactose carbohydrate and one glucose carbohydrate. These
are bound together by a 1-4 glycosidic bond in a beta orientation.

If you look at the structure of lactose you will see that there is one
significant difference between galactose and glucose. Galactose’s
fourth carbon has a different orientation in galactose than in sucrose.
If it was not so the resulting molecule would have just been sucrose
(glucose+glucose) instead of lactose.

Also from the structure, we can notice that lactose is a reacting sugar
since it has one free hemiacetal hydroxide. So when we react Lactose
with bromine water it will give monocarboxylic acid.
Learn about ​Polysaccharide here with videos and solved examples​.

Maltose

(Source: Nutrients Review)

Maltose is another disaccharide commonly found. It has two

monosaccharide glucose molecules bound together, The link is
between the first carbon atom of glucose and the fourth carbon of
another glucose molecule. This, as you know, is the one-four
glycosidic linkage. Let us look at a few of its properties

● On acid catalysed hydrolysis one mole of maltose gives two

moles of D-glucose.
● Maltose has a free hemiacetal hydroxide, hence it undergoes
mutarotation. It exists as both α-Maltose and also β-Maltose
 ● For the same reasons it also gives a positive test with Benedicts
and Tollens reagent.

Solved Example for You

Q: Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar due to

a. 1-2 linkage
b. 1-4 linkage
c. 1-5 linkage
d. None of the above

Sol: The correct answer is option “a”. Due to the 1-2 linkage in
sucrose both aldehyde group of glucose and keto group of fructose is
not free. Hence the sugar becomes non-reacting.
Polysaccharides

Now you have heard of simple ​carbohydrates​ and complex

carbohydrates. The most common form of carbohydrate that we find
in the food we consume is Starch which is a complex carbohydrate.
Now, these complex carbohydrates have a highly branched molecular
structure and are named polysaccharide. Let us study them in detail.

​Polysaccharide

These are complex carbohydrates made up of repeating units of

monosaccharides that are attached together by Glucosidic ​linkage​. A
molecule of a polysaccharide has n ​number​ of sugar molecules bound
together to form a larger ​molecule​. Another name for them is ​Glycans.

Polysaccharides are classified into two parts, namely

 i. Homopolysaccharide​: These molecules are made up of only
one type of monosaccharides. A general theme for them is
derived from the kind of monosaccharide ​units​ they have. A
homopolysaccharide made up of only glucose molecules is
named Glucans. One with only galactose molecules earns the
name Galactus. In this given topic we will be focussing only on
Glucans.
ii. Heteropolysaccharide:​ These are polysaccharide molecules
consisting of more than one type of monosaccharides.

Now let us focus on the three main polysaccharides commonly found

in ​nature​. They are the ones that we see every day in our day to day
lives.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
● Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Structure of Proteins
● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
 ● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

Starch

(Source: Wikipedia)

Starch is an element present in all photosynthetic ​plants​. We generally

find starch in the plant’s ​roots​ and ​seeds​. All plants when they
synthesize glucose, the extra glucose is stored in the form of starch.

Starch is a glucan, meaning it only consists of glucose molecules all

linked together. The general molecular formula for starch is (
C​6​H​10​O​5​)n. The ‘n’ denotes the number of molecules linked together.

We find starch in the seeds of plants as granules. On heating these

​ e obtain two
granules in the ​water​ we form a ​colloidal suspension. W
components from this process. These two components are Amylose
and Amylopectin.
Amylose
● Amylose themselves are also polysaccharides.
● Constitute about 10-20 % of a starch molecule
● They are made up of D-glucose units that connect with each
other with the help of a α-glycosidic linkage.
● One glucose unit connects to another glucose unit from the
one-four position i.e. { α (1-4) }
● Amylose has the same basic structure of maltose, multiplied by
‘n’ number of times.
● In a basic amylose structure, there are almost 1000 upwards
glucose molecules forming a link
● Although they are a big molecule they are very compact in size
because they form an alpha-helical structure.
● Amylose molecules exist in form of a helix

Amylopectin
● They have the same basic structure that Amylose does which is
D-glucose units combining in a { α (1-4) } form
● Constituent about 80-90% of a starch molecule
● They have a very interesting structure. They have a main
branch similar to Amylose, but then also have branches.
 ● Branching in amylopectin occurs between C6 – C1, which
means the sixth carbon in the chain connects with the first
carbon of the branch.
● And the branching occurs every twenty to twenty-five glucose
units.

Glycogen

(Source: Freedictionary.com)

Glycogen is also a Glucon i.e. it is made up exclusively of D-glucose

units. It is a reserved carbohydrate source for animals as well as
plants. Let us now see the structure and the functions of Glycogen.

Structure

The structure of glycogen is similar to that of Amylopectin. The only

exception being that glycogen is very highly branched. In a glycogen
molecule, the branching happens more frequently, almost after every
six glucose units. This is the reason glycogen behaves differently to
Amylopectin. This is the reason a glycogen molecule has a very high
molecular weight. It is not compact in size either, it is a big molecule,

A hydrolysis experiment will suggest that in a glycogen molecule, one

end group occurs after every ten to twelve units of glucose.

Functions

Glycogen performs some very important functions in plants and

animals, It is able to perform these functions due to its unique
structure and formation.

● Now as you are aware, glucose is found in the cell membranes

of cells of plants and animals. These glucose molecules are
very small and compact. They can easily diffuse out of a cell
membrane. But glycogen is a big and complex molecule, so it
will not diffuse out of the cell membrane. Hence it is an
important function of glycogen, the storage of glucose within
cells.
● If a large number of glucose cells are present inside the cells,
the osmotic pressure in the cell will be very high. This can
 cause the cell membrane to burst. But if glucose combines into
one big molecule of glycogen, the problem does not occur.
● As mentioned earlier glycogen is a glucose reserve for the cells
of our body. If the glucose concentration is low, enzymes
present in the cells can easily hydrolyze the end groups of
glycogen to make glucose. This detachment process is made
easy due to the structure of glycogen.
● The reverse of the above is true as well. If the glucose
concentration is high, enzymes can attach glucose molecules to
form glycogen.

Cellulose

(Source: Myorganicchemistry.com)

Cellulose is an important structural element of the cell walls of all

photosynthetic plants. It is a fibrous kind of polysaccharide which is
highly insoluble in water. Here again, Cellulose is a glucan. The
D-glucose units connect in (1→4) fashion.

The connection though is different from starch and glycogen, it is a

beta linkage. So the linkage is β-glucosidic linkage. The structure is
not helical since the beta linkage confines the polysaccharide to a
straight-chain form.

In the structure of cellulose -OH groups point outside the chain

structure. Whenever two chains come close to each other they tend to
form a stack on each other due to hydrogen bonding between these
hydroxyl groups. As a result, we get a fibrous insoluble structure
which is suitable for the functions of cellulose in the cell walls.

Learn more about ​Monosaccharides here in detail​.

Solved Example for You

Q: The solution of iodine in ​KI​ is used to detect a solution of starch and

glycogen, as it gives:

a. blue colour with starch and red colour with glycogen

b. a green colour
 c. green colour with starch and red colour with glycogen
d. blue colour with starch and yellow colour with glycogen

Sol: The correct answer is option “A”. The solution of iodine in KI is

used to detect a solution of starch and glycogen, as it gives blue colour
with starch and red colour with glycogen.
Structure of Proteins

Did you know, other than ​water​, protein is the most abundant
substance​ in your body? In fact, every single ​cell​ of the human body
consists of proteins. Proteins have a unique three-dimensional
structure, which allows it to perform its various functions. We shall
now study the structure of proteins.

Structure of Proteins
Proteins are what we call ​biological​ polymers (i.e. they occur naturally
in ​nature​). Now we previously learnt that amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins. What this actually entails is that proteins are long
chain-like structure, with amino acids being the main ingredient.
These amino acids are connected together with peptide bonds, and a
few such ​bonds linking​ together form a polypeptide chain. Now one or
more of these polypeptide chains twist or fold spontaneously and a
protein is formed.

The ​size​ of the proteins varies greatly. It actually depends on the

number of polypeptide molecules it contains. One of the smallest
protein molecules is insulin, and the largest being Titin which consist
of 34,350 ​amino acids​. Let us now look at the four types of protein
structure that make up a protein molecule.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
● Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Polysaccharides
● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
 ● Vitamins
● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

1] Primary Protein Structure

The primary structure is the unique formation and order in which the
amino acids (the building blocks) combine and link to give us a
protein molecule. Protein gets all its properties from its primary
structure.

There are in all twenty amino acids in the human body. All of these
have a carboxyl group and an amino group. But each has a different
variable group known as the “R” group. It is this R group that lends a
particular protein its unique structure.

Every protein is determined by the sequencing of the amino acids. The

formation and ordering of these amino acids in proteins are extremely
specific. If we alter even one amino acid in the chain it results in a
non-functioning protein or what we call a gene mutation.

2] Secondary Protein Structure

After the sequencing of amino acids, we now move on to the
secondary structure. This is when the peptide backbone of the protein
structure will fold onto itself, to give proteins their unique shape. This
folding of the polypeptide chains happens due to the interaction
between the carboxyl groups along with the amine groups of the
peptide chains.

There are two kinds of shapes formed in the secondary structure.

These are

● α-helix: The backbone follows a helical structure. The

hydrogen bonds with the oxygen between the different layers
of the helix, giving it this helical structure.
● β-pleated sheet: here the polypeptide chains are stacked next to
each other and their outer hydrogen ​molecules​ form
intramolecular bonds to give it this sheet-like structure

3] Tertiary Structures

This is the structure that gives protein the 3-D shape and formation.
After the amino acids form bonds (secondary structure) and shapes
like helices and sheets, the structure can coil or fold at random. This is
what we call the tertiary structure of proteins. If this structure is
disrupted or disturbed a protein is said to be denatured which means it
is chemically affected and its structure is distorted.

4] Quaternary Structure

Finally, we come to the fourth structure. The spatial arrangement of

two or more peptide chains leads to this structure. It is important to
note it is not necessary for proteins to have quaternary structures.
Primary, secondary and tertiary structures are present in all natural
proteins, but the same is not true for quaternary structure. Hence if a
protein has only the first three structures it is considered to be a
protein.

Solved Question for You

Q: The destruction of the biological nature and activity of proteins by

heat or chemical agent is

a. Dehydration
b. deamination
c. denaturation
d. All of the above
Sol: The correct answer is option “C”. Denaturation of proteins is the
disruption and even possibly the destruction of both secondary and
also tertiary structures of proteins.
Amino Acids

We all know that ​proteins​ are one of the main building blocks of life.
But do you know what are the building blocks of proteins? The basic
building blocks of proteins what we call Amino acids. These are
absolutely essential for humans. Let us learn all about them.

Amino Acids

There are some 20 amino acids in the proteins that we consume. These
amino acids bond together to form a larger protein molecule. Amino
acid being ​organic​ compound ​molecules​ can form various different
links with each other due to the ​versatile nature of carbon​. This
enables the great ​diversity​ of proteins that can be found in ​nature​.
These are an essential ​nutrient​ in our ​diet​ because of the functions
they perform.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
● Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Polysaccharides
 ● Structure of Proteins
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

Structure of Amino Acids

(Source: Wikibooks)

There are actually thousands of amino acids occurring in nature. But

only about 20 amino acids form a part of the proteins in the human
body. These twenty acids will be our focus here. Although all these
have varied structures, the basic structure of amino acid remains
uniform​.

● All amino acids contain a ​carbon​ atom in the middle of the

molecule, the alpha-carbon
 ● This ​atom​ is surrounded by three chemical groups.
● One is an amine group -NH​2
● The second one is a carboxyl group -OOOH
● The third group is denoted by R. This is the variable radical
group and is different for every amino acid. This R group
makes the amino acid unique.

Classification of Amino Acids

Amino Acid can be classified ​based on their structure​ and the
structure of their side chains i.e. the R chains. Now two basic
subcategories are

1] Non-Polar Amino Acids

These are also known as ​Hydrophobic​. The R group can be either of

Alkyl groups (with an alkyl chain) or Aromatic groups. The acids
falling in this group are stated below. Numbers one to seven are Alkyl
and the last two are aromatic

i. Glycine (H)
ii. Alanine (CH3)
iii.Valine ( CH (CH3)2 )
iv.Methionine ( CH2CH2SCH3 )
v. Leucine ( CH2CH(CH3)2 )
vi.Isoleucine ( -CH(CH3)CH2CH3 )
vii. Proline (special structure)
viii. Phenylalanine
ix.Tryptophan

Browse more about Biomolecules

Biomolecule
 ● Vitamins
● Structure of Nucleic Acids
● Nucleic Acids
● Structure of Proteins
● Enzymes
● Amino Acids
● Carbohydrates
● Polysaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Monosaccharides

2] Polar Amino Acids

If the side chains of amino acid contain different polar groups like
amines, alcohols or acids they are polar in nature. These are also
known as Hydrophilic Acids. These are further divided into three
further categories.

a) Acidic: If the side chain contains an extra element of carboxylic

acid component these are acid-polar amino acids. They tend to donate
their hydrogen atom. These are:
 i. Aspartic Acid ( CH2COOH)
ii. Glutamic Acid ( CH2CH2COOH )

b) Basic: These have an extra nitrogen group that tend to attract a

hydrogen atom. The three basic polar amino acids are

i. Histidine
ii. Lysine ( CH2(CH2)2NH2 )
iii.Arginine

c) Neutral: These are neither acidic nor basic. They have an equal
number of amino and ​carboxyl groups​. Also, they have at least one
hydrogen component connected to electronegative atoms. Some of
these neutral acids are

i. Serine ( CH2OH )
ii. Threonine ( CH(OH)CH3 )
iii.Asparagine ( CH2OHNH2 )
iv.Glutamine ( CH2CH2CONH2 )
v. Cysteine ( CH2SH )
vi.Tyrosine
Amino acid can also be classified on the basis of their need to the
human body and their ​availability in the human body

1] Essential Amino Acids

These are the acids that cannot be synthesized in our bodies. We must
rely on food sources to obtain these amino acids. They are

● Leucine
● Isoleucine
● Lysine
● Theorine
● Methionine
● Phenylalanine
● Valine
● Tryptophan
● Histidine (conditionally essential)

2] Non-Essential
These acids are synthesized in our bodies itself and we need not rely
on outside sources for them. They are either produced in our bodies or
obtained from protein breakdowns.

Properties of Amino Acids

Now that we have seen the structure and types of amino acids. Now
from this information, we can arrive at the properties of amino ​acids​.

● Each amino acid has both an acidic and basic group as you can
see from its structure. This is the reason they behave like salts.
● Any amino acid in the dry state is in crystalline form. They
exist as a dipolar ion. The COOH group exists as an anion. And
the NH2 group exists as a cation. This dipolar ion has a special
name ​“Zwitter ions’.
● In aqueous solution, alpha amino acids exist in ​equilibrium
between a cationic form, an anionic form and dipolar ion.
● The Isoelectric point is the pH point at which the concentration
of zwitter ions is the highest ad the concentration of cationic
and anionic form is equal. This point is definite for every
α-amino acid.
 ● They are generally water soluble and also have high melting
points.

Solved Example for You

Q: Proteins are condensation polymers of

a. α amino acid
b. β amino acid
c. α hydroxyl acids
d. none of the above

Sol: The correct option is “A”. α amino acid is the monomeric units of
proteins.
Enzymes

Perhaps you are unaware but your​ digestive system​ is like one big
chemical lab. There are hundreds of reactions that occur in your body
to absorb the nutrients from your ​food​. And the catalyst for all these
reactions is enzyme. They have several other functions in your body
too. Let us learn all about them.

Enzyme
Enzymes can be simply described as biological catalysts. Like any
catalyst enables a ​chemical reaction​, they do the same for your body.
In most reaction ​energy​ has to be provided, usually in form of ​heat​.
Enzymes actually reduce the activation energy needed and increase
the ​velocity​ of ​biological​ reactions in the ​human​ body. But in this
process/reaction, they do not undergo any changes themselves. Hence
this is the reason they are recyclable and the required in very small
doses.

Structure of an Enzyme
Enzyme is a form of ​protein​. As far as the structure goes they are
globular, that is they are cylindrical in shape. Their polypeptide chains
have a coil-like formation.

The sequencing of the ​amino acids​ decides not only define the
structure of an enzyme but also its functions. The distinctive structure
of an enzyme will determine its catalytic activity. In a particular
configuration (or sequencing) a particular portion of the structure,
known as the ​active site​ is accessible to attract and catalyze the
reactants.

Functions of an Enzyme

Now enzymes are highly specific in their functions. A particular

enzyme will only act as a catalyst for a particular ​reaction​. In a given
specific reaction the molecules that an enzyme reacts with is a
substrate.
The substrate binds itself to the active site of the enzyme. This is ​the
​ o only the correct enzyme can react with the
lock and key theory. S
correct substrate, just like only the perfect key can unlock a particular
lock. Although in modern times we believe that the substrate alters its
binding to fit with the active site, This is known as ​induced fit.

After the catalyses of the substrate, we are left with what we call the
products. It is important to note that throughout this entire process the
molecular structure of the enzymes does not undergo permanent
alteration. It keeps its structure enact and performs its functions again.

Just like proteins, enzymes can also be denatured. This happens when
their structure changes due to some external force or ​pressure​.
Generally, heat causes them to denature and lose their catalyzing
abilities.

Classification of Enzymes

The classification of an enzyme is on the basis of the reaction they

catalyze. The classification is as follows

● Oxidoreductases: Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions

 ● Transferases: These obviously catalyze reactions of group
transfer
● Hydrolases: Hydrolysis reactions are catalyzed by them
● Lyases: one of the lesser known enzymes
● Isomerases: These change the shape of the molecule after
catalysing its structural shifts
● Ligases: And these catalyze ligation processes

Solved Example for You

Q: An Enzyme will mainly consist of which of the following?

a. Globular proteins
b. Fibrous proteins
c. Nucleic Acids
d. Fats

Sol: The correct answer is “A”. Enzymes mainly consist of globular

proteins. During enzyme formation, hundreds of amino acids string
together to form a globular protein molecule.
Vitamins

Have your parents ever pestered you to take Vitamin supplement?

And have you been ignoring them? Well, you should pay heed to
them. It is very important to get your vitamin requirements because
your body cannot produce vitamins for itself! That’s right, the human
body relies solely on outside sources for its vitamin requirement. Let
us learn more about such interesting facts about vitamins.

Vitamins

Vitamins are a group of ​organic compounds​ that are extremely

necessary and essential for normal growth and functioning of the
human body. They are required in very small ​quantities​ but cannot be
synthesized by the body itself, and can only be sourced from outside.

Whereas they are not possible to be synthesized in our bodies they are
easily synthesized in ​plants​. So we must rely on these sources for our
daily requirements of vitamins. Like for example, we eat oranges and
lemons for Vitamin C. So all our vitamins are obtained via our ​diet​ or
other supplements.

Function of Vitamin
Vitamins are essential ​nutrients​ for our body because they perform
hundreds of functions. Right from promoting growth to ​absorption​ of
calcium​ and blood clotting, they are everywhere. They are also
responsible for providing ​cofactors​ or coenzymes to ​amino acids​ for
them to carry out their catalyzing functions.

Particular vitamins are responsible for certain important functions. Let

us have a brief look

● Vitamin A: Required to enable night vision in ​humans​. Cells

need for transfusion of light require Vitamin A
● Vitamin B: Necessary for the creation of serotonin, myelin,
dopamine and epinephrine. Also lowers cholesterol levels
 ● Vitamin C: Boosts the ​immune system​ and helps fatigued
muscles.
● Vitamin D: Formation of RNA needs Vitamin D. Also helps
bones absorb calcium to stay healthy and strong and reduce the
risk of fractures
● Vitamin E: Has antioxidant properties that help our bodies get
rid of free radicals and assists in formation of red blood cells
● Vitamin K: Essential in creating some important proteins

Types of Vitamins

Around 17-20 types have been discovered and studied up till now.
They fall into two classifications, namely

Fat Soluble Vitamins

As the name suggests these are soluble in lipids i.e. in fats. They are
insoluble in water. Their absorption into the bloodstream happens in
the intestines. They are stored in human bodies as adipose tissues in
the liver. Fat-soluble types of the vitamin are not easily excreted,
Hence it is very much possible to overdose on them if they reach toxic
levels in your body, This disease is hypervitaminosis. The fat-soluble
vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E and K.

Water Soluble Vitamins

These are readily dissolvable in water. Excess water-soluble vitamin

in your body passes out through ​urine​. Since they are excreted so
easily they also need to be replaced regularly. Water Soluble Vitamins
are Vitamin B and Vitamin C.

Solved Example for You

Q: Anti haemorrhagic vitamin is:

a. Vitamin K
b. Vitamin C
c. Both of the above
d. None of the above

Sol: The correct answer is “A”. Vitamin K is the anti haemorrhagic

vitamin. It is essential for blood clotting which means it helps wounds
heal faster.
Nucleic Acids

Have you noticed how much you look like your parents? This is
because our genes are passed down to future generations. This is done
through nucleic acid, the vehicles of genetic inheritance of our cells.
Let us learn a bit more about these fascinating biomolecules.

Nucleic Acid

It can be said that nucleic acid is one of the most important

biopolymers. They are present in all ​organisms​. Think of them as the
mother chip of your body. This is where your ​genetic​ information is
encoded and recorded. The function of nucleic acid is to express this
information outside the ​cell​ to the future generation. So it felicitates
the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next and
so onwards.

Now nucleic acids are big and complex ​molecules​. They have a linear
binding between nucleotides. They are double-stranded and have
highly complex sequencing.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
 ● Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Polysaccharides
● Structure of Proteins
● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
● Structure of Nucleic Acids

Nomenclature

The initial discovery of nucleic acid was through their presence in the
nucleus of ​eukaryotic cells​. Hence the name contains a reference to
the nucleus. Later they were discovered to contain phosphate group
like in phosphoric acid. And the name was now nucleic acids. The
name is also a version of polynucleotide since the structure is linear
chains of nucleotides.

Types of Nucleic Acids

Now there are two main types of nucleic acids, namely

Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Ribonucleic Acid. And although the name
sounds complicated you will be surprised to know you are already
aware of them both. They are nothing but DNA and RNA. Let us
study these both in a little more detail.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Better known as DNA this is the first type of nucleic acid. You are
probably aware of DNA and know that every humans DNA is unique
to themselves. But how does this happen and what exactly is DNA.

There are approximately 200 types of cells in our bodies like white
blood cells, neurons (brain cells), cardiac muscle cells etc. But how do
these cells know their particular function? Well, their chemical
compositions within their cells differ. The cells get their instructions
from this biopolymer that is Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
This information is the DNA code. This code forms due to the
sequencing of the nucleotides in the ​polymer​ chain. The DNA has
very long chains of nucleotides in their molecules and hence there are
billions upon billions of sequences possible. This is the reason all of
our DNA sequences are unique only to us.

Did you know that 99.9% of DNA is the same in all us humans? Only
0.01% of our ​DNA​ coding is special and different for every human.
This is what makes every individual unique.

Ribonucleic Acid

RNA is our second type of nucleic acid. Although it does not get as
much importance as DNA, Ribonucleic Acid is absolutely essential
for our survival. RNA is actually the blueprint of our DNAs. While
the DNA is always inside the nucleus of our cells, the RNA travels
outside the nucleus to perform its functions. There are actually three
types of Ribonucleic Acids, namely:

● Ribosomal RNA​: Is the main part of the ribosome, which is

where the protein maker of our bodies.
 ● Messenger RNA​: This RNA carries the message outside from
the nucleus. It carries the information about what type of
protein cells are to be manufactured.
● Transfer RNA​: It brings the ​amino acid​ to the ribosome for
protein production.

Solved Example for You

Q: The relationship between the nucleotide triplets and the amino

acids is:

a. Translation
b. Replication
c. Genetic code
d. All of the above

Sol: The correct answer is “C”. The relation between nucleotides and
amino ​acids​ is genetic code. This determines the sequence of amino
acids in the proteins.
Structure of Nucleic Acids

An unwounded DNA ​molecule​ is about 6 feet long. If you stretch out

all the strands of DNA in your body and link them together, it would
stretch to 110 billion miles! That is 600 round trips to the Sun! So how
can these DNA molecules fit in our bodies? Let us take a look at the
fascinating nucleic acid structure.

Nucleic Acid Structure

As we have already studied Nucleic Acids are one of the most

important ​biomolecules​ present in ​humans​. They store all our ​genetic
information that we pass down to future generations. And they are
able to perform their functions, due to the shape and structure they
form. Let us study about this peculiar structure of Nucleic Acids,

Just like in all biomolecules, nucleic acids are also made up of

repeating ​monomers​. Here these repeating ​units​ or monomers have a
special name, nucleotides. These are the building blocks of nucleic
acids.

Browse more Topics under Biomolecule

● Carbohydrates
 ● Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
● Polysaccharides
● Structure of Proteins
● Amino Acids
● Enzymes
● Vitamins
● Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides

While discussing nucleic acid structure we must look at nucleotides.

Nucleotides are monomers that make up nucleic acids. A nucleotide
consists of three basic components. These three components are:

1] Sugar

This is typically a 5 carbon sugar. i.e a pentose. These sugars form a

bond with the phosphate groups also present in nucleotides. The sugar
in the ​DNA​ molecule is deoxyribose and the one in RNA is ribose
sugar.
2] Phosphate Group

This is the phosphates based on the inorganic compound phosphoric

acid i.e. H3PO4. They react with the sugars in the nucleotides to form
an ester bond. Nucleic acids may contain one or more of these
phosphate groups.

3] Nitrogenous Base

There are in total five nitrogenous bases. However, in the molecule of

a nucleic acid, only four are ever present.

● Adenine
● Cytosine
● Guanine
● Thymine (only present in DNA)
● Uracil (only present in RNA)

Structure of DNA
DNA is one of the two types of nucleic ​acids​ present in our bodies.
You all are well versed in DNA and the function it performs. In fact,
you have probably even seen a diagram or picture of a DNA molecule.
It has a very distinct spiral ​shape​.

The five carbon sugar present in DNA is deoxyribose. And DNA

consists of four of the nitrogenous bases, namely Adenine, Cytosine,
Guanine and Thymine. They are expressed by the first letters of their
name A C G T. Now the nucleotides in DNA forms a link by a
dehydration synthesis polymerization method. The link forms between
the sugar atom of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next one.
This is how the sugar-phosphate backbone of the molecule forms.
The nitrogenous bases project to the opposite side of the backbone.
DNA is composed of two such strands arranged next to each other.
The strands are anti-parallel (i.e. in opposite orientation). The
nitrogenous base of the two strands links together by hydrogen bonds.
Guanine links with Cytosine and Adenine links with Thymine. This
linking plays an important role in the replication of the DNA
molecule. And this is how DNA gets its double helix (spring-like)
structure.

Structure of RNA

The lesser known of the two nucleic acids in our body is Ribonucleic
acid. It is also essential in coding and decoding of genes. Instead of
deoxyribose RNA contains the five-carbon sugar, Ribose. Also instead
of Thymine, it contains the fifth nitrogenous base of Uracil.

Similar to the DNA in RNA to the link is between the sugar and the
phosphate group. But they are single-stranded molecules and do not
typically form a helix. Unlike DNA which is permanently placed in
the nucleus, RNA molecules are more temporary. The molecules are
less stable than those of DNA.

Solved Question for You

Q: Adenine pairs with thymine through:

a. one hydrogen bond

b. two hydrogen bonds
c. one phosphate bond
d. four hydrogen bonds

Sol: The correct answer is “B”, Adenine always pairs with Thymine
through two hydrogen bonds in DNA. Similarly Adenine pairs with
Uracil through two hydrogen bonds in RNA. Guanine and Cytosine
always pair with three hydrogen bonds.