MODULE 4

BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are small molecular units that combine to form larger biological
macromolecules. There are four major classes of them: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids.
Each biological molecule is an important component of the cell and performs many functions
necessary for survival, growth, and reproduction of organisms. These molecules make up majority of
the cell’s dry mass. What this means is if we remove the water content of a cell, what is left are
essentially biological macromolecules. Because they contain carbon, biological macromolecules are
organic substances. In addition to carbon, each macromolecule may have hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and other elements.

Monomers and Polymers

A monomer is a molecule that can react chemically with another molecule of the same type
to form larger molecules. Two monomers produce a dimer, three a trimer, four a tetramer, etc. In
general, a chain of repeating units of monomers is called a polymer.

Major Classes of Biological Molecules

1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macromolecules represented by the chemical formula Cm(H2O)n. If m and
n are equal, the generic formula is (CH2O)n. This reveals that it is a molecule where the ratio of carbon
to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1.
Monomers for carbohydrates are called monosaccharide. They are sugars that cannot be
broken down further into simple sugars. Monosaccharide are the fundamental building blocks of
carbohydrates. There are three major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharide, disaccharides,
and polysaccharides.

Classification Description Example

Fructose, Glucose, and
Monosaccharide A simple sugar
Galactose

Carbohydrates produced by
Disaccharide Sucrose and Lactose
linking two simple sugars
Carbohydrates produced by
Polysaccharide linking two or more simple Starch and Cellulose
sugars
 Interestingly, simple sugars such as glucose, galactose, and fructose carry the same chemical
formula. It is C6H12O6, but they differ in chemical structure because of differing arrangements of atoms
in the carbon chain.
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide combine to form a new molecule through
dehydration reaction. The hydroxyl group (-OH) of one monosaccharide links with a hydrogen atom
of another, releasing a water (H2O) molecule in the process. The bond which joints the two atoms in
the simple sugars is a covalent bond.
Examples of disaccharides are lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is formed by glucose
and galactose. Maltose is formed by two glucose molecules. Sucrose, our table sugar is formed by
glucose and fructose.
Polysaccharides are formed by long chains of monosaccharide linked together by covalent
bonds. The chain can be branched or unbranched and may be composed of different types of
monosaccharide. Polysaccharides are large molecules. Examples of polysaccharides are glycogen,
starch, cellulose, and chitin.
▪ Glycogen – energy storage form in animals, fungi, and bacteria.
▪ Starch – energy storage form in plants.
▪ Cellulose – a polysaccharide which makes up most of plant’s cell wall.
▪ Chitin – primary component of exoskeletons of insects, crabs, spiders, etc.

Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are another group of sugars which are important for cell recognition and
binding. These are sugars formed by three to six simple sugars. They are often found bound with
chains of amino acids or lipids. Carbohydrates that bind with proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids
(glycolipids) on the surface of cell membranes are examples of oligosaccharides.

Functions of carbohydrates
The primary function of carbohydrates can be grouped into three: source of energy (glucose
and starch), molecules for structure formation (chitin and cellulose), and components of cell membrane
for cell recognition and binding (glycoproteins and glycolipids).
 a. Energy Source
Glucose is produced when plants combine water and carbon dioxide, using sunlight as the
source of energy. It is stored in plants in the form of starch. In animals, it is stored in liver as glycogen.
Starch and glycogen are both polysaccharides. Glucose is the most important energy source for cellular
respiration. When people eat food rich in complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), their digestive
system break them down into monosaccharide or disaccharides with the help of enzymes, such as
amylase, maltase, and sucrose. Simple sugars, such as glucose, require no participation from enzymes
and are easily absorbed by the human body.

b. Structure and formation

Given the fact that polysaccharides are made from hundreds and thousands of chains of simple
sugars linked together by glycosidic bonds, they make good molecules to build strong and durable
biological structures. Cellulose, a type of polysaccharide for example, is the main biological component
from which plant tissues are made.

c. Cell recognition and binding

Oligosaccharides combine with proteins and lipids to form glycoproteins and glycolipids.
These are essential parts of cell membranes because aside from contributing to the structural stability
of the cell, they help the cell identify the many molecules that surround it in its cell exterior. Glycolipids
of white blood cells, for example, bind with pathogens. Through endocytosis, these harmful molecules
are ingested by white blood cells and are digested by enzymes secreted by the cell’s lysosome.

2. Lipids
Lipids are normally what we call fats. Lipids are the molecules we find in cooking oil; it is the
juicy substance that ooze out of hamburgers; it is that layer of substance between the skin and muscle
tissues of beef which contribute to the steak’s delicious taste. It is also part of the membranes of all cells
which we call the phospholipid bilayer.

Type Structure Function

Fats and oils Glycerol + 3 fatty acid tails Energy storage

Glycerol + 2 fatty acid tails +

Phospholipids Component of cell membrane
phosphate group

Complex chain of Waterproofing of cell surfaces

Waxes
hydrocarbons especially in plants

Have a distinctive 4-ring Important hormones, also a

Steroids
structure component of cell membranes
 Structure
Lipids are organic compounds that are generally insoluble in polar solvents such as water.
This means they are hydrophobic, but we must make an exception. We know that phospholipids are
not entirely hydrophobic. They keep a part which loves water. We call that part the hydrophilic part.
It is the head of phospholipids. Setting phospholipids aside, however, much of the lipids we use in our
daily lives are hydrophobic, a phenomenon we see whenever we pour cooking oil into a glass of water.
Oil and water do not mix. They are immiscible.
Fats are made mostly of long chains of hydrocarbons. It has two distinct molecular parts. It
consists of glycerol, which serves as the backbone, and three fatty acids which are the tails of the fat
molecule. Glycerol is an organic molecule containing three hydroxyl group (OH). A fatty acid is another
organic molecule consisting of long chains of hydrocarbons attached to a carboxyl group (-COOH).
These two distinct parts combine to form a fat molecule in a process called a dehydration synthesis (the
process of joining two molecules or compounds that requires the removal of water (H2O).

Types of fats
Saturated Fats
When carbon atoms in the tail of fatty acids contain only single bonds, the hydrocarbon tail
lines up straight. Therefore, saturated fatty acids easily compress or are easily compacted, such as the
case for example, when fatty acids are exposed to low temperatures. They turn solid at low
temperatures.
People are often advised to keep saturated fats in their diets to the minimum because
saturated fats clog arteries. This leads to arteriosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis is the thickening, hardening,
and loss of elasticity in the walls of arteries that may lead to stroke and heart attack.
Warm blooded animals evolved to produce mostly saturated fats in their cell membranes and
tissues. This was to maintain the integrity of cell structures amidst all the complicated biological process
in the body.

Unsaturated Fats
As the name suggests, unsaturated fats are not saturated with hydrogen atoms. This occurs
when the carbon atoms in the fatty acid tails are double bonded. This creates kinks or bends in the tail
which prevents the tails from being tightly compacted together. If saturated fats are solid in room
temperature, unsaturated fats are liquid.
Fatty acids which make up phospholipids in cell membranes of plants and cold-blooded
animals are usually unsaturated. In plants, the seed oil has to be in liquid form to allow seeds to
germinate. Common examples are soya, corn, canola, sunflower, and safflower. With animals, deep-
sea fishes like salmon and tuna, which swim in very cold waters, have the highest levels of
polyunsaturated fats.
 Other examples of lipids
▪ Phospholipids – are important components of cell membranes. They are made up of two
fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group. The nonpolar fatty acid components are
hydrophobic, while the polar phosphate group is hydrophilic.

▪ Waxes – are lipids, which are important components for many organisms, such as the cuticle
covering the surface of leaves and stems of plants, and protective coverings on the skin and
fur of some animals.

▪ Steroids – are lipids with carbon skeleton of four fused rings. Cholesterol, bile salts, sex
hormones, and vitamin D are examples of steroids. Cholesterol is found in the tissues of
animals, but not in plants. Cholesterol adds strength to the plasma membrane of animal cells
and serves as a precursor to the formation of steroids. The liver produces cholesterol that you
need. You can get additional cholesterol by consuming meat products, poultry, eggs, and
dairy products. However, too much cholesterol is harmful to the body, as it may be deposited
on the inner walls of arteries, which may cause heart ailments.

▪ Triglycerides – also known as blood fats, circulate in the bloodstream along with cholesterol.
You get triglycerides from food such as meat and plant oils your body makes its own too.
Like cholesterol, you need just the right amount of triglycerides because too much can
increase the risk of heart and blood vessel diseases.

▪ Sphingolipids – are specifically found in the brain, lungs, and nerve tissues. They also serve
as surfactants that help reduce tension on the lungs to maintain its right shape.

3. Protein
Amino acids are the structural building blocks of proteins. An amino acid is a molecule
consisting of an amine group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and a side-chain group, all of them
bonded to a carbon atom. The bond which holds them together is called a peptide bond. Each amino
acid molecule is distinguished by the properties of its side chain. Proteins are different from either
carbohydrates or lipids in that proteins contain nitrogen.

Protein molecule Function Examples

Speed up biochemical Amylase, pepsin, lipase,
Enzymes
reactions sucrose, trypsin
Chemical signaling molecules,
they regulate physiological
Insulin, prolactin, oxytocin,
Hormones processes such as growth,
growth hormone
metabolism, development and
reproduction
 Give structure and support to
Structural proteins the organization of cells, Collagen, keratin, elastin
tissues, and organs
Core part of the immune
system, fights intruding virus,
Antibodies White blood cells
bacteria, and other micro-
organisms

Storage proteins Store mineral ions in the body Ferritin, ovalbumin, casein

Hemoglobin, myoglobin, serum

Transport proteins Carry vital materials to cells
albumin, calbindin

Controls materials that enter Glycoproteins, cytoplasmic

Receptor
and leave cells receptors, membrane proteins
Regulates the strength and
Contractile proteins speed of heart and muscle Muscle proteins
contraction

The R-group or the side chain gives the molecule its unique identity. Thus, the twenty different
amino acids needed by humans to make proteins are each identified by a sequence of molecules
contained in the R-group. Glycine and alanine, for example, are nearly identical in molecular structure,
except for the R group. Glycine has an atom of hydrogen as molecule in R-group. Alanine, on the other
hand has a methyl group (-CH3).
The side chains (R-group) of amino acids can be divided into two major classes. Those
containing non-polar side chains and those with polar side chains. Non-polar side chains primarily
consist of hydrocarbons. The functional groups they have carry no charge at physiological pH and are
not capable of hydrogen bonding.
All polar amino acids have either an OH or NH2 as an R-group. They can be neutral, positive,
or negatively charged. Because they are polar, they are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with
other suitable groups. The polarity of amino acids affects its structure. Because polar molecules are
hydrophilic, polar amino acids have a tendency to settle on the outside part of a protein.
 Essential Amino Acids
The human body needs at least 20 types of amino acids to stay healthy. Our bodies can
produce 11 of them, except for nine amino acids which must be obtained from diet. These nine amino
acids are called essential amino acids.
▪ Leucine – stimulates muscle strength and growth, helps regulate blood sugar, helps prevent
and treat depression
▪ Isoleucine – helps the body produce energy and hemoglobin, assists nitrogen growth in
muscle cells especially in children
▪ Lysine – helps body absorb calcium, helps in collagen production
▪ Methionine – helps in cartilage formation
▪ Phenylalanine – turns into tyrosine once ingested (another amino acid needed to make
protein, brain chemicals, and thyroid hormones)
▪ Threonine – supports a healthy immune system, heart, liver and central nervous system. It
helps the body in overall repair, energy, and growth. Supports the body’s joints and
connective tissues. It helps fatty acid digestion.
▪ Tryptophan – supports a healthy nervous system and brain health. Assists in sleeping, muscle
growth and repair, and overall neurotransmitter function.
▪ Valine – assists muscle growth and repair. Responsible for endurance and maintenance of
good muscle health.
▪ Histidine – helps transport neurotransmitters to the brain and helps overall muscle health. It
helps in producing red and white blood cells.

4. Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids are molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one
generation of cells or organisms to the next. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids. If the
sugar component of a nucleic acid is ribose, the polymer is ribonucleic acid (RNA). If it is deoxyribose,
the polymer is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Components of Nucleic Acid

▪ A nitrogenous base (purines and pyrimidine) – Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C),
Guanine (G), and Uracil (U)
▪ Five-carbon sugar (Pentose sugar) – deoxyribose, ribose
▪ Phosphate group – phosphate molecules
Nucleic acids are the most important biomolecules of all, and this is not an exaggeration. This
is because the entire building plan for cells, tissues, and organs rest on nucleic acids to sustain itself, for
example, are instructions contained in a nucleic acid molecule. Information in this plan is contained in
the nucleus of every living cell. The nucleus transmits and expresses this plan from inside the cell and
going to the cell exterior. This coded information is conveyed through a sequence of nucleic acids.
The structure of RNA and DNA suggests the evolutionary history of DNA. RNA came before
DNA, and deoxyribonucleic acid came to form when two strands of RNA molecules combined.
 DNA is the nucleic acid containing the genetic instructions about how cells will grow and function,
but it is RNA which conveys these instructions to cells and organelles of cells.
DNA vs. RNA
DNA
Contains the genetic instructions
Function about how cells will grow and
function
Double-stranded. Each nucleic
strand is composed of
phosphate group, pentose
Structure
sugar (deoxyribose), and a
nitrogenous base consisting of
G, A, C and T.
Adenine links to thymine (A-T)
Base pairing and cytosine links to guanine
(C-G)
Nucleus (eukaryotes), nucleoid
Location (prokaryotes), mitochondria
and chloroplasts in plants
Less reactive to other
Stability
substances
Propagation Self-replicating
Helix-geometry is B form. DNA
is protected and tightly
Unique features packed in the nucleus. Can be
damaged when exposed to
UV rays
RNA
Transfers this information to
cells from the nucleus to the
ribosome
Single-stranded. Nucleic strand
is composed of phosphate
group, pentose sugar (ribose),
and a nitrogenous base
consisting of G, A, C and U.
Adenine links to uracil (A-U)
and cytosine links to guanine
(C-G)
Some are in the nucleus, some
in the cytoplasm, and some in
the ribosome
Reactive to other substance
Reactive to other substance
Helix-geometry is A form. RNA
are continually being made,
broken down, remade, and
reused. More resistant to
damage caused by UV rays