Asynchronous Review for Science 10

Carbohydrates and Lipids

• Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found
in living things.
• They contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). They
have an H:C:O ratio of 2:1:1, which is based on their general formula
Cn(H2O) n .
• They include sugars, starches, cellulose, and many other compounds in
organisms.
• When animals, including humans, eat cellulose or starch, the substance is
broken down into glucose units, which are carried by the blood to the liver,
where they are recombined to form glycogen (animal starch) and stored. If
the body needs energy, the glycogen can be broken down again into
glucose, which is then transferred to the tissues, where it is oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water, a process that releases energy. Some of the
glucose is converted into fats; some react with nitrogen-containing
compounds to form amino acids, which in turn are combined to
manufacture proteins that comprise the animal body.
Primary Functions of Carbohydrates in Living Organisms
• Substrate for respiration of source of energy
• Intermediate substances in respiration (e.g., glyceraldehydes)
• Energy storage (e.g., starch and glycogen)
• Structure (e.g., chitin in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal walls)
• Transport (e.g., sucrose transported in the phloem of a plant)
• Recognition of molecules that pass through the cell membrane

Classification of Carbohydrates
• The most basic units of carbohydrate are simple sugars or
monosaccharides.
• When two simple sugars combine, the resulting carbohydrate is a
disaccharide.
• A long chain of repeating units of monosaccharides makes up a
polysaccharide.
Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides include simple sugars. Two of the most common
monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. Their molecular formula is the same,
C6H12O6 . Their difference lies in their structures and functional groups.
• Glucose has an aldehyde group (-CHO) whereas fructose has a ketone
group (-CO-). These two sugars can also have a ring structure when the
aldehyde (or ketone) functional group at one end of the molecules reacts
with the hydroxyl at the other end.
• Glucose is present in all major carbohydrates-rich food such as corn while
fructose is commonly found in fruits like berries.
• Carbohydrates play a key role in energy production and storage, functions that
can be best explained by looking through the processes involved in digestion of
rice, which is a good source of polysaccharide starch.
• The starch in rice is considered a stored energy. When you chemically digest rice,
the starch is broken into glucose units, which supply the energy for your
activities. When the body is physically inactive, the glucose is temporarily
converted to glycogen, which is stored in the liver for later use.

Structural formulas of glucose and fructose

2. Disaccharides, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose, are made up of two
monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. A glycosidic bond is a type of
covalent bond that links a carbohydrate unit to another.
• Condensation reaction, which involves the elimination of water. In the
formation of glycosidic bond, H2O is formed as the H atom from glucose
and the –OH group from fructose are removed.
• Hydrolysis is the reverse of condensation reaction wherein the glycosidic
linkage in a disaccharide is broken. It involves the addition of water to
break the disaccharide molecule into its two constituent mosaccharide
units.

• Sucrose, also known as table sugar or cane sugar, is found in many plants.
• Lactose, or milk sugar, is composed of glucose and galactose.
• Maltose, which is made up of two glucose units, is the initial product of the
digestion of starch, and is broken down to glucose , which is absorbed in
the small intestine. These three disaccharides have the molecular formula
C12H22O11.
sucrose= glucose + fructose
lactose = galactose + glucose
maltose = glucose + glucose
.Polysaccharides are composed of long chain monosaccharide units. They are
also referred to as polymers with high molecular mass. Starch, glycogen, and
cellulose, which are examples of polysaccharides, have glucose as their
repeating monomer unit. They only differ in the number of glucose units, the
extent of branching, and the position of the glycosidic bonds.
Functions of Polysaccharides
1. Starch – primary form of polysaccharide stored in plants
2. Glycogen – primary form of polysaccharide found in animals and fungi
3. Cellulose – major structural component of plant cell walls
 • Lipids are another important class of nutrients that include fatty acids,
phospholipids, steroids, and cholesterol. The human body produces these
organic biomolecules, and can also be obtained from our diet.
• They are found in dairy and poultry products, grains, meats, baked goods,
and oils, among many others.
• Lipids have high percentage of C and H content. They are insoluble in
water but are soluble in nonpolar solvents. Because they are insoluble in
an aqueous solution, body lipids are often found in combination with other
biomolecules.
• Lipids play a major role in many important functions of the body. To ensure
normal bodily functions, men need at least 3% essential body fat, while
women require at least 12%. Deficiencies or imbalances in lipid metabolism
can cause serious health problems. The following are the primary functions
of lipids.
• Source of energy
• Energy storage
• Cell membrane component
• Protection and insulation
• Digestion and absorption
Some lipids are composed of fatty acids, which serve as the basis for the lipids
classifications.
• Fatty acids consist of a long, hydrophobic nonpolar hydrocarbon “tail” and
a hydrophilic polar carboxylic acid functional group at the “head.”
• Natural fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. The saturated fatty
acids have no carbon-carbon double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids
contain one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.
• Saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than unsaturated fatty
acids of the same size.
• Linoleic and linoleic acids are essential fatty acids. Both these
polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must
therefore be derived from our diet. Otherwise, health problems such as
poor growth, scaly skin, and dehydration can occur. Essential fatty acids
are precursors in the synthesis of prostaglandins, a group of lipids which
(in very small amounts) greatly affects a number of important physiological
processes.
 • Lipids can be classified as either simple or complex based on their
structure. Simple lipids, such as cholesterol, do not have fatty acids; while
triglycerides, phospholipids, and waxes are complex lipids that have them.
Classification of Lipids
• Simple Lipids: Steroids
• are simple lipids that have a backbone structure consisting of four
fused carbon rings. Cholesterol belongs to this group of lipids.
1. Cholesterol (C27H46O) is the most abundant steroid in animal tissues. It is
composed of steroid backbone structure, with a hydroxyl group at one end and a
branched hydrocarbon chain at the other. Cholesterol plays a significant role
because it serves as the base of other steroids, including the male and female
hormones, vitamin D, and bile acids.
 Complex Lipids

2. Triglycerides – the most abundant class of lipids in plants and animals is the
tryglyceride (triacylglycerol). They are composed of neutral lipid molecules
created via esterification of three fatty acids to a single glycerol molecule.
• Esterification is the reaction between an alcohol and an acid, and produces
an ester and water.
• Triglyceride is the major lipid found in the blood. At room temperature,
solid triglycerides, usually of animal origin, are called fats while liquid
triglycerides, usually from plants, are called oils.
3. Phospholipids are made up of two fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate, and one
simple organic molecule like choline. They are the fundamental building blocks of
cellular membranes. Phospholipids have two distinct parts – the polar,
substituted phosphate head, and the long hydrophobic tail. This dual nature is
essential to their role in holding the cells together and controlling the materials
that pass into and out of the cells.
• Lecithin is an example of phospholipid. It is a major component of cell
membrane and is used an emulsifying agent. Lecithin is present in egg
yolk. Another phospholipid is cephalin, which is found in the cell
membranes of brain and tissue, and in blood platelets.
. Phospholipids are made up of two fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate, and one
simple organic molecule like choline. They are the fundamental building blocks of
cellular membranes. Phospholipids have two distinct parts – the polar,
substituted phosphate head, and the long hydrophobic tail. This dual nature is
essential to their role in holding the cells together and controlling the materials
that pass into and out of the cells.
 • Lecithin is an example of phospholipid. It is a major component of cell
membrane and is used an emulsifying agent. Lecithin is present in egg
yolk. Another phospholipid is cephalin, which is found in the cell
membranes of brain and tissue, and in blood platelets.

4. Waxes are water-insoluble, low-melting solids that consist of a long chain fatty
acid and a long chain of monohydroxy alcohol. Natural waxes are often mixtures
esters of fatty acids and may also contain hydrocarbons.
“Good” and “Bad” Cholesterol
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) – transports cholesterol away from the liver
and throughout the body; they are “bad” because they distribute
cholesterol to the arteries.
• High-density lipoprotein (HDL) – HDLs are “good” because they transport
excess cholesterol from body tissues to the liver, where it is converted to
bile acids that are needed in digestion.

Proteins and Nucleic Acid

• Proteins are large biomolecules that consist of long chains of building
block molecules called amino acids.
• The word protein is derived from the Greek proteios, which means “of first
importance.”
• There are 20 common amino acids, which feature different structural
arrangements of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
• Proteins can be classified into two major types --- fibrous proteins (e.g.,
collagen, actin, and keratin), which are insoluble in water and are the main
structural components of the body; and globular proteins (e.g., albumin,
hemoglobin, and immunoglobuline), which are soluble in water and are
used for the other non-structural purposes of proteins.
 • Proteins perform important functions in organisms. This class of
biomolecules is found in every cell and is essential to life. A typical cell
contains about 9000 different proteins. A human body has about 100 000
different proteins that help carry out all the bodily functions, which involve
the following:
1. Structure – Proteins comprise our skin, bones, hair, and nails. Collagen
and keratin are the main structural component in animals and the two
most important structural proteins. They form the scaffolding that gives
the animal cells their shape.
2. Hormones. Many hormones, including insulin, are actually proteins.
Insulin helps cells absorb glucose from the blood and prevents the body
from using fat as a source of energy.
3. Transport. Hemoglobin in the blood is an example of transport protein.
During cellular respiration, it carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells,
where it is used. Then, hemoglobin carries the resulting carbon dioxide to
the lungs for expulsion outside the body.
4. Storage. Some proteins store materials in the same way that starch and
glycogen store energy. Casein in milk stores nutrients for newborn
mammals, as does ovalbumin in eggs for birds. Ferritin, a blood cell
protein in the liver, stores iron.
5. Catalysis. Enzymes are proteins that speed up all of the reactions that
take place in organisms. Most enzymes act specifically with only one
reactant to produce substances, which are referred to as substrates.
6. Protection. When an antigen, a protein from an outside source or some
other foreign substance, enters the body, the body develops its own
proteinaceous antibodies to counteract the alien protein and fight disease.
Fibrinogen is a protein that facilitates blood clotting. Without fibrinogen,
our wounds will never heal.
7. Movement. The protein molecules in our muscles, myosin and actin, are
involved in muscle contraction and relaxation.
8. Regulation. Some proteins not only control and regulate the kind of
proteins synthesized in a particular cell but also dictate the time this
should occur.
Amino Acids
• Amino acids are organic compounds that contain an amino group and a
carboxyl group.
• Thousands of amino acids can be synthesized in the laboratory, but only
20, called alpha-amino acids, make up the proteins.
• Amino acids can be classified into essential and nonessential. The 10
essential amino acids are not produced by the body, and include arginine,
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, and valine. We have to eat certain protein-rich foods to obtain
these amino acids.
• The remaining 10 of the common amino acids are nonessential and can be
produced by the body. Because of the biological functions of amino acids,
they are important in nutrition and are commonly used in food
supplements and in food technology.
 Levels of Protein Structure
Primary Structure
The primary structure of proteins refers to the arrangement or order of amino
acids in the protein chain. When two amino acids combine through a
condensation reaction, a dipeptide is produced.

• Secondary Structure
The secondary structure of proteins refers to the molecular shape caused by
the hydrogen bonding between the –C ==O and –N—H groups within the
chain. The secondary structures are held together by hydrogen bonds. The
alpha (α)-helix is an example of a secondary structure of proteins wherein the
polypeptide chain forms a spiral configuration. The “alpha” means that if one
looks down length of the spiral, the coiling happens in a clockwise direction.
• Tertiary Structure
In the tertiary structure, the interactions primarily between the R groups fold
and bend the polypeptide chain. The tertiary structure is a description of the
way the whole chain folds itself in its three-dimensional shape.
The different types of bonding and intermolecular interactions that contribute
to the tertiary structure are hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interaction, ionic
bonds, covalent bonds (disulfide linkages), and London dispersion forces.
• Protein denaturation can be caused by several factors, including pH and
temperature changes.
1. pH changes.
2. Increase in temperature.
3. Addition of various chemicals.

Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic Acids are large biomolecules that include the deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These polymeric macromolecules
are made from monomers known as nucleotides, which are linked in a
chain through condensation reactions.
• DNA serves as information-carrying molecules in biological systems. Some
RNA molecules serve as catalysts. DNA and RNA are involved in the
synthesis of the different proteins used by the cell.
• Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher was the first to identify DNA, which he
called “nuclein,” as a distinct molecule. In 1870, while investigating the
proteins in a white blood cell, he discovered DNA and found it to be
characteristically different from proteins because of its slightly acidic
nature. Miescher successfully separated the nuclein into its component
parts – the protein and the nucleic acid.
• Miescher work was continued by Albrecht Kossel, a German biochemist,
who observed the presence of phosphoric acid, nitrogen-containing bases,
and the five-carbon sugar pentose in nuclein.
• In the early twentieth century, American chemist Phoebus Levene identified
the pentose as ribose and deoxyribose, and established that the
components were linked in the order phosphate-sugar-base to form
nucleotide units.
• The backbone structures of DNA and RNA are generally the same. The two
differ in the sugar component; deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA.
Other differences between DNA and RNA pertain to their base components
and structures. The nitrogen-containing bases of DNA are adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine. RNA does not have thymine; instead, it
contains uracil. Furthermore, DNA is a double-stranded helical molecule
while RNA exists as a single-stranded molecule.

DNA Replication
• The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the purine
and pyrimidine bases. Adenine, specifically pairs with thymine, and
guanine specifically pairs with cytosine. Two hydrogen bonds are formed
between adenine and thymine, while three hydrogen bonds develop
between guanine and cytosine.
• The double-helical structure and the complementary bases on the two
strands are essential to the role of the DNA. Evidence suggests that, during
cell division, the two strands of DNA unzip and new complementary
strands are synthesized on each of the old strands. That is, the old strands
serve as patterns or templates for the synthesis of the new complementary
bases--- adenine pairing with thymine, and cytosine pairing with guanine.
 • As a result, two new double-helix DNA strands are produced. Each is
composed of the old and the newly synthesized strand. This process is
called DNA replication, wherein a copy of the DNA molecule is created.
Thus, as cells divide, genetic information is transmitted through DNA
replication.

Chemical Reactions
A chemical equation is a written symbolic representation of a chemical reaction.
The reactant chemical(s) are given on the left-hand side and the product
chemical(s) on the right-hand side.
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms can be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction, so the number of atoms that are present in the
reactants has to balance the number of atoms that are present in the products.
Follow this guide to learn how to balance chemical equations differently.

1. Write down your given equation.

For this example, you will use:
C3H8 + O2 H2O + CO2
• This reaction occurs when propane (C3H8) is burned in the presence of
oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide.
2. Write down the number of atoms per element that you have on each side of the
equation.
Look at the subscripts next to each atom to find the number of atoms in the
equation.
• Left side: 3 carbon, 8 hydrogen and 2 oxygen.
• Right side: 1 carbon, 2 hydrogen and 3 oxygen.
3. Always leave hydrogen and oxygen for last.

4. If you have more than one element left to balance: select the element that
appears in only a single molecule of reactants and in only a single molecule of
products. This means that you will need to balance the carbon atoms first.

5. Add a coefficient to the single carbon atom on the right of the equation to
balance it with the 3 carbon atoms on the left of the equation.

C3H8 + O2 H2O + 3CO2

• The coefficient 3 in front of carbon on the right side indicates 3 carbon
atoms just as the subscript 3 on the left side indicates 3 carbon atoms.
• In a chemical equation, you can change coefficients, but you must never
alter the subscripts.
6. Balance the hydrogen atoms next. You have 8 on the left side. So you'll need 8
on the right side.
C3H8 + O2 4H2O + 3CO2
• On the right side, you now added 4 as the coefficient because the subscript
showed that you already had 2 hydrogen atoms.
• When you multiply the coefficient 4 times by the subscript 2, you end up
with 8.
• The other 6 atoms of Oxygen come from 3CO2.(3x2=6 atoms of oxygen+ the
other 4=10)
7. Balance the oxygen atoms.
• Because you've added coefficients to the molecules on the right side of the
equation, the number of oxygen atoms has changed.
You now have 4 oxygen atoms in the water molecule and 6 oxygen atoms in the
carbon dioxide molecule. That makes a total of 10 oxygen atoms.
• Add a coefficient of 5 to the oxygen molecule on the left side of the
equation. You now have 10 oxygen molecules on each side.
C3H8 + 5O2 --> 4H2O + 3CO2.
The carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms are balanced. Your equation is
complete.
• In our tissues, energy is needed for growth, repair, movement, excretion
and so on. This energy is obtained from glucose supplied to the tissues by
your blood. Aerobic respiration also requires Oxygen. The products of
tissue respiration are Carbon Dioxide and water.
Glucose + Oxygen   = Carbon Dioxide + Water    +    Energy
C6H12O6  +   6O2     =     6CO2    +     6H2O  +  Energy

The C6 means that the glucose molecule contains 6 atoms of Carbon.

The H12 means that the glucose molecule contains 12 atoms of Hydrogen.
The O6 means that the glucose molecule contains 6 atoms of Oxygen.
6O2 means 6 molecules of Oxygen, and each molecule contains 2 atoms of
Oxygen.
• The left-hand side of the equation shows 6 atoms of Carbon, 12 atoms of
Hydrogen and a total of 18 atoms of Oxygen. So does the right-hand side.
The two sides of the equation must balance.
• 6CO2 means 6 molecules of Carbon Dioxide. The 6 multiplies the Carbon
and the Oxygen.
• The C means one atom of Carbon, but again we are ever so lazy and do not
bother to put a little figure 1 after the Carbon atom. So all together there are
6 atoms of Carbon. ( 6 times 1). The same number of Carbon atoms on each
side.

The O2 means that every molecule of Carbon Dioxide contains 2 atoms of

Oxygen.
So all together there are 12 atoms of Oxygen. Plus the 6 atoms of Oxygen in the
water makes a total of 18. Same on both sides again.
By now you should realize that there are six molecules of water and that each
contains two atoms of Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen. Now calculate the
number of Hydrogen atoms on the right-hand side. You should find that 6 times 2
makes 12. So the Hydrogen atoms balance up as well.

Balance the following chemical equation:

1. C + SO2  CS2 + CO
2. Xe + F2  Xe F6
3. Ag + H2S  Ag2 S + H2
4. KOH + CO2  K2CO3 +H2O
5. Na +Cl2  Na Cl
6. Fe O + C  Fe + CO2
7. Si O2 + C  Si C + CO
8. Fe Cl3 + Na OH  Fe (OH)3 + NaCl
9. Al + H2 SO4  Al2 (SO4)3 + H2
10. NH3 + CuO  Cu + N2 + H2O

Answers:
1. 5C + 2SO2  CS2 + 4CO
2. Xe + 3F2  Xe F6
3. 2Ag + H2S  Ag2 S + H2
4. 2KOH + CO2  K2CO3 +H2O
5. 2Na +Cl2  2Na Cl
6. 2Fe O + C  2Fe + CO2
7. Si O2 + 3C  Si C + 2CO
8. Fe Cl3 + 3Na OH  Fe (OH)3 + 3NaCl
9. 2 Al + 3H2 SO4  Al2 (SO4)3 + 3H2
10. 2NH3 + 3CuO  3Cu + N2 + 3H2O
 Types of Chemical Reactions
There are four different types of reactions that can be represented by chemical
equations. They are illustrated below with letters representing elements,
compounds, or ions.
1. Combination reaction: A + B  AB
2. Decomposition reaction: AB  A + B
3. Single replacement reaction: AB + X  AX +B
4. Double replacement reaction: AX + BY  AY + BX

Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction

Effects of temperature
Increasing the temperature speeds up the reacting particles. It increases the rate
of reaction by causing frequent and more successful particle collisions.
A decrease in temperature usually slows down the rate of reaction. This is
commonly observed in cooked foods, fresh fruits, and vegetables in the
refrigerator.
Effects of Concentration
Concentration refers to the number of particles of a substance in a given volume.
As the reactant concentration is increased, more particles will most likely collide.
Thus, the rate of the reactions rises as well.
Effects of Particle size
Reducing the particle size of solid reactants increases the surface area available
for collision. This facilitates more contact between and among the particles thus,
enable greater collision and faster reaction.
Effects of a Catalyst
A Catalyst is a substance that can either hasten or retard a chemical reaction
without itself being used up in the reaction. In a chemical equation, the catalyst is
written above the arrow since it does not affect the overall reaction.