Chapter 3

THE BOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Module 1: CARBOHYDRATES
Introduction

Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of biomolecules. As staples in the diet, they
are low-cost and widely distributed around the world. Common food sources include sugars,
cereal grains, starchy vegetables and dried legumes. Fruits and milk also contribute considerable
amounts in the diet. When we eat food rich in carbohydrates, energy is stored in our body and is
released when needed by the cells.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Identify the elements that make up the carbohydrates;

2. Describe the chemical composition and functions of carbohydrates;
3. Differentiate the different classes of carbohydrates;
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the different properties of carbohydrates based on
their chemical structure;
5. Determine the recommended daily allowance of carbohydrates;
6. Determine the effect of insufficient or oversupply of carbohydrates in the body;
7. Determine the common food sources of carbohydrates; and
8. Describe the formation and breakdown of carbohydrates in the body.

Structure and Composition

Carbohydrates consist of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) with a
ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon and oxygen. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches,
cellulose and many other compounds found in living organisms. In their basic form,
carbohydrates are simple sugars or monosaccharides. These simple sugars can combine with
each other to form more complex carbohydrates. The combination of two simple sugars is a
disaccharide. Carbohydrates consisting of two to ten simple sugars are called oligosaccharides,
and those with a larger number are called polysaccharides.

Many saccharide structures differ only in the orientation of the hydroxyl groups (-OH).
This slight structural difference makes a big difference in the biochemical properties,
organoleptic properties (e.g., taste), and in the physical properties such as melting point and
Specific Rotation (how polarized light is distorted). A chain-form monosaccharide that has a
carbonyl group (C=O) on an end carbon forming an aldehyde group (-CHO) is classified as an
aldose. When the carbonyl group is on an inner atom forming a ketone, it is classified as a
ketose.

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 The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides (from a Greek word which means
sugar). They cannot be broken down into smaller units. A monosaccharide with 5 carbon atoms
is called a pentose, a monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms is called a hexose. The most

important pentose is deoxyribose, a part of the structure of the nucleic acid DNA. The most
important hexose is glucose, the starting material for respiration and the chief energy source for
metabolism of cells. It is found free in nature in fruits, honey, corn syrup, sweet corn and some
roots. Another is galactose, formed from the digestion of the milk sugar, lactose. One other
common hexose is fructose, or fruit sugar, found in fresh fruits and is the sweetest of all sugars.

Fig. 1 Structures of pentoses

Glucose Fructose Galactose

Fig. 2 Structures of monosaccharides

When two monosaccharides combine in a chemical reaction, a disaccharide is formed.

Some disaccharides are common in the diet. Sucrose is the chemical name for table sugar. It is
also called cane sugar or beet sugar because it is commercially prepared from sugar cane and
sugar beets. Other sources include molasses, maple syrup, sorghum and some fruits. Another
disaccharide is lactose, or milk sugar, found in milk and milk products. It can be formed from
glucose in the body especially in pregnant women. It is the least sweet among common sugars
and digested very slowly compared to other disaccharides.

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 Fig. 3 Structures of disaccharides

When many monosaccharides (a monomer) are joined together, a polysaccharide (a

polymer) is formed. Also called complex carbohydrates, the most common examples are starch,
glycogen and cellulose – all are produced by joining glucose units.

Fig. 4
Structure of starch, amylose and amylopectin

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 Starch is the most abundant and cheapest form of carbohydrate. It is found in grains,
seeds, tubers, roots and unripe fruits. Starch molecules are composed of amylose (a straight
chain of glucose units) and amylopectin (a branched chain of glucose units).

Fig. 5 Structure of glycogen

Another polysaccharide is glycogen. It is characterized by the presence of many side

chains of glucose. The highly branched structure allows the breakdown to proceed at several
points at the same time. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals.

Fig. 6 Structure of cellulose

The polysaccharide cellulose is found in plant cell walls. In part, cellulose accounts for
the strength of these walls. Its glucose units are joined together by a slightly different type of
linkage than that in starch or glycogen.

Simple chemical tests can identify the types of molecules in foods. Starch can be identified
by its reaction with iodine solution. Iodine solution has a reddish-brown color and positive test
for starch will change the color of iodine solution to blue-black.

Physiological Importance of Carbohydrates

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 Carbohydrates have prominent physiological importance in the body. Without them, there
exists no physiology in the body and also life on the earth. After water and protein, they comprise
the most abundant matter in the body and are significant nutrients of the body. The food we eat
mostly comprises of carbohydrates to a greater extent than other macro and micro-nutrients. The
diet has carbohydrates in different forms like the sugars, starch and cellulose. These convert to
glucose for production of energy or storage in liver as glycogen. Sometime they are also used for
biosynthesis of fats and proteins in the body. The following are the functions of carbohydrates in
general:

1. Provide instant energy to the body:  This appears to be the primary function of

carbohydrates in the body. Glucose breaks down to water and carbon-dioxide in the presence of
oxygen to generate ATP. Carbohydrates which we consume as food in the form of starch (ex:
potato, bread), sucrose (ex: sugar, fruits), etc. get digested in the body to release glucose. This
glucose after being absorbed into blood reaches all the body tissues and cell.
There it gets metabolized to release energy in the form of ATP in the presence of oxygen inside
the mitochondria. Thus, energy is produced in the body due to the breakdown of carbohydrates
and it is the prime function of carbohydrates.

2. Reserve food: Carbohydrate is also stored as the reserve food in the body. This is a
precautionary measure for the body to cope up in times of hunger. The excess glucose which is
obtained by food is converted to glycogen in the body. This conversion of glucose to glycogen
happens in the presence of the hormone insulin. This glycogen is stored in the liver and to a
small extent in the skeletal muscles. In times of starvation, this glycogen converts back to
glucose and provides energy. However, excess of these leads to obesity and other diseases like
diabetes. So, those to lose weight one have regulate their carb diets intake. Glucose is used up for
biosynthesis of fats in the body. Hence, fats accumulation can occur leading obesity in prone
individuals.

3. Carbohydrates form other biomolecules: Carbohydrates in excess are converted into

other bio-molecules of physiological importance. They mostly get stored in the form of fats. They
undergo fatty acid synthesis reaction in the cell for storage in the body and use in times of
starvation.

4. Detoxification of the body by metabolism: Many drugs and toxic wastes in the body
are metabolized for easy excretion in the body. Some of these are water-insoluble and hence they
are difficult to be expelled in urine. Body converts them into glucuronosyl conjugates using the
glucuronosyl moiety derived from carbohydrates.
A carbohydrate moiety like glucose combines with uronic acid to form glucuronate. These
conjugates of insoluble substances with glucuronosyl are more water-soluble and easily excreted
from the body. Thus detoxification of physiological importance is carried out to some extent with
carbohydrate derivatives.

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5. As reaction intermediates or accessories: Carbohydrates participate as reaction
intermediates in some vital reactions. This function of carbohydrates is seen extensively in
various cellular reaction. For example, one of the vitamins, Vitamin B2 also called Riboflavin has
a ribose sugar moiety. This ribose is a four carbon type of carbohydrate monomer by its chemical
structure. It is involved in vital reactions at the organ and cellular level. Similarly,
carbohydrates are also chemical constituents of many hormones, vitamins, enzymes, etc.
6. Constitute genetic material: Carbohydrates form a part of DNA and RNA in the form of
deoxyribose and ribose sugars. These are five carbon monosaccharides formed form heptulose
sugars by the pseudo-heptulose pathway.

7. They are constituents of all the cellular organelles. Carbohydrates are also components

of cell organelles like the cell membrane, mitochondria, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.
They provide structural integrity, mechanical strength in combination with proteins and
lipids. They help make up the body mass by being included in all the parts of the cell and tissues.
For example, in cell membranes, there are two constituents, i.e., glycolipid layer and glycoprotein
layer. Here the term “glyco” is a carbohydrate.

8. Transport of oxygen: Glucose is taken by red blood cells. These are the types of blood cells
which lack mitochondria and other cell organelles required for producing energy. In such a case,
the ATP is produced by a non-oxidative pathway with the end product as lactose and ATP.
This energy thus produced is necessary for hemoglobin to bind to oxygen molecules. These bound
oxygen molecules are transferred from lungs to the different tissues.

9. Aid in gut motility: Our diet has carbohydrates in greater proportions because, it aids in
bowel movement. When you suffer from constipation, doctors first prescribe you bran and other
carbohydrate material like Ispaghula. The carbohydrates in these material is in the form of
fibrous material. When they are ingested, their material absorbs water in the guts, swells and
increases the load.
This load is useful to increase intestinal motility and expulsion of waste (feces). Thus
carbohydrates help clear gut and prevent constipation. Hence, when you feel constipated, have
banana fruit and notice the change.

10. They play a role in other physiological roles. Since they are components of many bio-
molecules, they have further roles in body physiology. They have a role in blood clotting,
immunity, fertilization. Thus they take part in many physiological reactions.
Thus the function of carbohydrates is diverse and of vital physiological importance in the body.
Though they are very vital, their imbalance can be troublesome in some disorder like diabetes,
etc.

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 Activity 1. Refer from one of the images given below to complete the table:

Name of Source of
Kind of Preparation / Dish
Carbohydrate

Ex. potato mashed potato

1.

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2.

3.

4.

5.

Activity 2. Iodine Test for Starch

I. Objective: To determine which common foods contain starch.

II. Materials: White tiles/white plate

Medicine dropper

Iodine solution (maybe purchased from a drugstore)

Food samples (flour, corn, potato, fresh egg white, fresh egg yolk,

cheese, any fresh fruit juice, squash, eggplant and tomato)

III. Procedure:

1. Properly label the materials to be tested.

2. Place a small amount (slice, strip, about 1 mL for liquid sample) of samples of

foods on a white tile or plate.

3. Add one drop of iodine solution to each sample.

4. Record the observed color of the iodine on the foods you tested.

Note: Perform three trials for each of the samples.

Do not forget to document the whole of the procedure you performed.

IV. Observations:
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 Color Change
Name of Food Sample
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

V. Questions:
1. Which foods contain starch? Which do not?
VI. Generalization:

REFERENCES:

Biochemistry, Seventh Ed. 2012. W.H. Freeman and Company

Campbell, Mary, K. 1998. Biochemistry. 3rd Ed. Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Philadelphia
LeMay Eugene, H., Beall, Herbert and Robblee, Karen, M. 2002. Prentice Hall. Massachusetts

www.researchgate.net
https://www.studyread.com/function-carbohydrates-physiological-importance
https://biologydictionary.net/monosaccharide/#monosaccharide-structure