CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2

Module 4: Cell and Molecular Biology 2

LESSON 4: BIOMOLECULES

1. Identify the major types of Biomolecules

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Biomolecule, also called as biological molecule, is a chemical compound

found in living organisms. These include chemicals that are composed of mainly
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Biomolecules are
the building blocks of life and perform vast array of functions. There are four
major types of biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
proteins.

Carbohydrates refers to any of the group of organic compounds consisting of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio of 1:2:1, hence the general
formula: Cn (H2O) n. Carbohydrates are the most abundant among the major
classes of biomolecules. They are most found in energy-giving foods.
Functions:

 Source of chemical energy for cells in many living things.

 Part of structural material of plants
 Carbohydrates also help with fat metabolism. If the body has enough
energy for its immediate needs, it stores extra as fats.
 Carbohydrates form a part of genetic material like DNA and RNA in the
form of deoxyribose sugars
 The main fiber of diet or it provides the bulk fiber for better digestion.

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3 Main Types of Carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharide – contains one sugar (saccharide)
2. Disaccharide – contains two monosaccharide
3. Polysaccharide – contains three or more monosaccharide

A. MONOSACCHARIDE
- I t i s t h e s i m
carbonyl (C) groups.

- T h e b a s i c u
- I t i s u s u a l l
easily absorbed by the body to produce energy.
- Mostly are sweet.

a. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
 This is also known/called “DEXTROSE”.
 It is the building block and functional unit of sugars that can be used as
the cellular fuel to generate energy.
 It is found in fruits and honey and is the major free sugar circulating in the
blood of higher animals.
 It is the source of energy in the cell function, and the regulation of its
metabolism.

b. Fructose (C6H12O6 )
 Fruit sugar and the sweetest naturally occurring sugar
 Used as a low-calorie sweetener.

c. Galactose (C₆H₁₂O₆) – the same molecular formula with glucose.

 The traditional milk that is also found in beans and in peas.
 Its major dietary source of galactose is the Lactose.
 Primarily part of larger sugar called lactose, which is found in all dairy
products and many baby formulas.
 Galactosemia - a disorder that affects how the body processes a simple
sugar called galactose

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B. DISACCHARIDE

- It contains 2 monosaccharides that

went through a dehydration-
condensation reaction.
- Found abundantly in naturally
occurring foods like sugarcane and
beet.
- Condensation reaction: a reaction in
which two molecules or parts of the same molecule combine, where one
molecule of water is lost.
- Hydrolysis Reaction: a reaction when the bond between
monosaccharides is broken with the addition of water.
a. Sucrose (C12H22O11 )
 Milk Sugar and dairy products
 it is commonly found in plants like sugarcane, sugar beet, and sorghum.

b. Lactose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)
 the sugar that's in milk.
 Our bodies use an enzyme called lactase to break down that sugar so we
can absorb it into our bodies
 Lactase – the enzyme responsible for the digestion of lactose
 Lactose intolerance - happens when a person's body cannot break
down lactose properly. Symptoms include bloating, flatulence, and
diarrhea.

c. Maltose (C12H22O11 )
 a disaccharide of glucose formed by the enzymic hydrolysis of starch:
used in bacteriological culture media and as a nutrient in infant feeding.
 A molecule composed of two glucose molecules (double sugar)
 It is found in wheat and barley.

C. POLYSACCHARIDES

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- Many monosaccharide units (complex

carbohydrate) that are attached to
one another through the process of
covalent bonding.
- There are three types of
Polysaccharides: Cellulose, Starch,
Glycogen.

a.
Cellulose
 It is the most abundant organic on Earth
 the main substance in the walls of plant
cells, helping plants to remain stiff and
upright
 arranged in the way that hydrogen
bonds link hydroxyl groups of adjacent
glucose molecules to form insoluble
fibrous sheets.
 The basic building block of any fabric and paper industry.
 Cotton – the purest natural form of cellulose (90%)
 Wood – 100% cellulose

b. Starch
 The Chief storage form of carbohydrates in plants and the most important
source of carbohydrate in human nutrition which is joined by covalent
bonds.
 It is produced by most green plants for storing energy through
photosynthesis.
 It isa made of 2 polysaccharides: amylose (coiled or helical structure)
and amylopectin (branched)
 In plants, starch nourishes the cell tissues
 In humans, it is broken down and it supplies energy to our tissues.

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 In paper industry, it is an ingredient in manufacturing corrugated
paperboard, paper bags and boxes and gummed paper and tape.
 Food additives, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and biodegradable polymers.

c. Glycogen

 stored form of glucose that is made up

of many connected glucose molecules
 When the body needs a quick boost of
energy or when the body isn't getting
glucose from food, glycogen is broken
down to release glucose into the
bloodstream to be used as fuel for the
cells
 It consists of long polymer chains of
glucose units that connected by an
alpha glycosidic linkage.
 Mainly stored in the liver and the
muscles and provides the body with a
readily available source of energy if blood glucose levels decrease.
 Insulin – stimulates cells in the liver, muscle and fat to absorb glucose
and transform it into glycogen or fats.
 Glucagon – causes the liver, muscles, and fat to convert glycogen back to
glucose.

Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the

building blocks of the structure and function of living cells. Examples of lipids
include fats, oils, waxes, certain vitamins (such as A, D, E and K), hormones and
most of the cell membrane that is not made up of protein. Lipids are not soluble
in water as they are non-polar but are thus soluble in non-polar solvents such as
chloroform.
Functions:
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 As discussed previously, glucose is stored in the body as glycogen. While
glycogen provides a ready source of energy, lipids primarily function as
an energy reserve.
 Fats within the body are critical for storing energy, maintaining body
temperature, cushioning vital organs, regulating hormones, transmitting
nerve impulses, and transporting fat-soluble nutrients.
 Fats in food provide a condensed energy source, enhance the texture
and flavor of food, and promote satiety

A. FATTY ACIDS
 Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the
food we eat. (Monomers of Lipid)
 During digestion, the body breaks down fats into fatty acids, which
can then be absorbed into the blood. Fatty acid molecules are usually
joined together in groups of three, forming a molecule called a
triglyceride.
 Triglycerides are also made in our bodies from the carbohydrates that
we eat.
 Fatty acids functions in the body as energy storage. If glucose isn't
available for energy, the body uses fatty acids to fuel the cells instead.
Common Fatty Acids:

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a. Triglyceride: Fats and Oils

1. Saturated fatty acids – Triggers the liver to make more

cholesterol
 Solid in room temperature
 Found in meat and chicken, butter, whole milk, poultry
products, coconut oil and palm oil.

2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids (Oils) – monounsaturated fats increase

the production of good cholesterol.
 Found in sunflower oil, canola oil, olive oil, peanut oil,
hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, and avocados
3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids – polyunsaturated fat is found in
plant and animal foods, such as salmon, vegetable oils, and
some nuts and seeds. Eating moderate amounts of
polyunsaturated (and monounsaturated) fat in place of saturated
and trans fats can benefit your health.
 Reduces cardiovascular diseases by lowering the cholesterol.

B. TRANS-FATS
Trans fat is a type of dietary fat. Of all the fats, trans fat is the
worst for your health. Too much trans-fat in your diet increases your risk
for heart disease and other health problems. Trans fats are made when
food makers turn liquid oils into solid fats, like shortening or margarine.

C. WAXES
A wax is a simple lipid which is an ester of a long-chain alcohol and a
fatty acid. The alcohol may contain from 12-32 carbon atoms. Waxes are
found in nature as coatings on leaves and stems. The wax prevents the plant
from losing excessive amounts of
water.
D. PHOSPHOLIPIDS

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Phospholipids are molecules with hydrophilic phosphate heads and
hydrophobic lipid tails. They comprise cellular membranes, regulate certain
cellular processes, and possess both stabilizing and dynamic qualities that can
aid in drug delivery.

 It is a part of the structure of cell membrane, and it is Important

in the transport of lipids in our body.

E. STEROIDS – A steroid is a biologically active organic compound with

four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration. Steroids
have two principal biological functions: as important components of cell
membranes which alter membrane fluidity; and as signaling molecules.
 a synthetic form of testosterone, a sex hormone naturally
produced by men and women alike. Taking steroids increases
testosterone levels, causing effects like increased muscle
mass and strength.

 Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is the

precursor to vitamin D, testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol, and bile salts.

Proteins are large biomolecules and

macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid
residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms,

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including catalyzing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to
stimuli, providing structure to cells and organisms, and transporting
molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another
primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide
sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a
specific 3D structure that determines its activity.

Amino acids are the basic building blocks of

proteins, and they serve as the nitrogenous
backbones for compounds like neurotransmitters and hormones. Amino acids are
special organic molecules used by living organisms to make proteins. The main
elements in amino acids are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. There are
twenty different kinds of amino acids that combine to make proteins in our
bodies. Our bodies can make some amino acids, but the rest we must get from
our food.

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Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules,

essential to all known forms of life. They are composed of nucleotides, which are
the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group
and a nitrogenous base. The two main classes of nucleic acids are
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). If the sugar is ribose,
the polymer is RNA; if the sugar is the ribose derivative deoxyribose, the polymer
is DNA. Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as
the primary information-carrying molecules in cells and make up the genetic
material. Nucleic acids are found in abundance in all living things, where they
create, encode, and then store information of every living cell of every life-form
on Earth. In turn, they function to transmit and express that information inside
and outside the cell nucleus to the interior operations of the cell and ultimately to
the next generation of each living organism. The encoded information is
contained and conveyed via the nucleic acid sequence, which provides the
'ladder-step' ordering of nucleotides within the molecules of RNA and DNA. They
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play an especially important role in directing protein synthesis Strings of
nucleotides are bonded to form helical backbones—typically, one for RNA, two
for DNA—and assembled into chains of base-pairs selected from the five
primaries, or canonical, nucleobases, which are: adenine, cytosine, guanine,
thymine, and uracil. Thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil only in RNA. Using
amino acids and the process known as protein synthesis,[1] the specific
sequencing in DNA of these nucleobase-pairs enables storing and transmitting
coded instructions as genes. In RNA, base-pair sequencing provides for
manufacturing new proteins that determine the frames and parts and most
chemical processes of all life forms.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525952/
https://www.britannica.com/science/steroid/Biosynthesis-and-metabolism-of-steroids
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/nucleic-acid

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“Don’t worry about anything; instead, pray about everything. Tell God what you need, and thank
him for all he has done.”
- Philippians 4:6

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