Proteins

Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most of
the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and
organs.

Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids, which are
attached to one another in long chains. There are 20 different types of amino acids that can be
combined to make a protein. The sequence of amino acids determines each protein’s unique 3-
dimensional structure and its specific function. Amino acids are coded by combinations of three DNA
building blocks (nucleotides), determined by the sequence of genes.

Functions

Function Description Example

Antibody Antibodies bind to specific foreign particles, such as viruses Immunoglobulin G
and bacteria, to help protect the body. (IgG)
Enzyme Enzymes carry out almost all of the thousands of chemical Phenylalanine
reactions that take place in cells. They also assist with the hydroxylase
formation of new molecules by reading the genetic
information stored in DNA.

Messenger Messenger proteins, such as some types of hormones, Growth hormone

transmit signals to coordinate biological processes between
different cells, tissues, and organs.
Structural These proteins provide structure and support for cells. On a Actin
component larger scale, they also allow the body to move.

Transport/storage These proteins bind and carry atoms and small molecules Ferritin
within cells and throughout the body.

Protein Production

Most genes contain the information needed to make functional molecules called proteins. (A
few genes produce regulatory molecules that help the cell assemble proteins.) The journey from gene to
protein is complex and tightly controlled within each cell. It consists of two major steps: transcription
and translation. Together, transcription and translation are known as gene expression.

During the process of transcription, the information stored in a gene's DNA is passed to a similar
molecule called RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the cell nucleus. Both RNA and DNA are made up of a chain of
building blocks called nucleotides, but they have slightly different chemical properties. The type of RNA
that contains the information for making a protein is called messenger RNA (mRNA) because it carries
the information, or message, from the DNA out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

Translation, the second step in getting from a gene to a protein, takes place in the cytoplasm.
The mRNA interacts with a specialized complex called a ribosome, which "reads" the sequence of mRNA
nucleotides. Each sequence of three nucleotides, called a codon, usually codes for one particular amino
acid. (Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.) A type of RNA called transfer RNA (tRNA)
assembles the protein, one amino acid at a time. Protein assembly continues until the ribosome
encounters a “stop” codon (a sequence of three nucleotides that does not code for an amino acid).

The flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is one of the fundamental principles of
molecular biology. It is so important that it is sometimes called the “central dogma.”

Amino Acids

The common property of all proteins is that they consist of long chains of α-amino (alpha amino)
acids. The general structure of α-amino acids is shown in . The α-amino acids are so called because the
α-carbon atom in the molecule carries an amino group (―NH2); the α-carbon atom also carries a
carboxyl group (―COOH).

In acidic solutions, when the pH is less than 4, the ―COO groups combine with hydrogen ions
(H+) and are thus converted into the uncharged form (―COOH). In alkaline solutions, at pH above 9, the
ammonium groups (―NH+3) lose a hydrogen ion and are converted into amino groups (―NH2). In the
pH range between 4 and 8, amino acids carry both a positive and a negative charge and therefore do not
migrate in an electrical field. Such structures have been designated as dipolar ions, or zwitterions (i.e.,
hybrid ions).

Although more than 100 amino acids occur in nature, particularly in plants, only 20 types are
commonly found in most proteins. In protein molecules the α-amino acids are linked to each other by
peptide bonds between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of its neighbour.

Structural Organization of Proteins

Primary Structure

Analytical and synthetic procedures reveal only the primary structure of the proteins—that is,
the amino acid sequence of the peptide chains. They do not reveal information about the conformation
(arrangement in space) of the peptide chain—that is, whether the peptide chain is present as a long
straight thread or is irregularly coiled and folded into a globule.

Secondary Structure

The secondary structure is determined by the spatial arrangement of the main peptide chain
without any regard for the conformation of side chains or other segments of the main chain.

Tertiary Structure

The tertiary structure is determined by both the side chains and other adjacent segments of the
main chain, without regard for neighbouring peptide chains.

Quarternary Structure

The term quaternary structure is used for the arrangement of identical or different subunits of a
large protein in which each subunit is a separate peptide chain.
Protein Sources

According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–2020Trusted Source, a healthful eating
pattern includes a variety of foods containing protein. Both animal and plant foods can be excellent
sources of protein.

The guidelines classify the following foods as protein foods:

 seafood
 lean meats and poultry
 eggs
 legumes, which include beans and peas
 nuts
 seeds
 soy products

Dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, also contain protein. Whole grains and
vegetables contain some protein, but generally less than other sources.

Animal products tend to contain higher amounts of protein than plant foods, so people
following a vegetarian diet or a vegan diet may need to plan their meals to ensure they meet their
protein needs.

Protein Needed

The FDA recommend that adults consume 50 grams (g) of protein a day, as part of a 2,000-
calorie diet. A person’s daily value may be higher or lower depending on their calorie intake.

Protein Deficiency

Protein deficiency can lead to malnutrition, such as kwashiorkor and marasmus, which can be
life threatening.

References

EFSA (2012). European Food Safety Authority, Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for protein.
EFSA Journal 2012; 10(2):2557

UK food composition database.

Consultation, F.E., 2011. Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition. FAO Food Nutr. Pap, 92,
pp.1-66.

Phillips, S.M., 2017. Current concepts and unresolved questions in dietary protein requirements and
supplements in adults. Frontiers in nutrition, 4, p.13.

Leidy, H.J., Clifton, P.M., Astrup, A., Wycherley, T.P., Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S., Luscombe-Marsh,
N.D., Woods, S.C. and Mattes, R.D., 2015. The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. The
American journal of clinical nutrition, 101(6), pp.132

Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Sayer AA (2019). Sarcopenia. The Lancet. 393 (10191): 2636-2646.
 LIPIDS

Lipids include oils, fats and some steroids. They are a group of molecules built from fatty acids
and are bonded to a variety of other compounds. They are of immense importance to the biological
world. They have important cell roles in human body. They are one of the four molecules of life but they
have far more variations in their structure than nucleic acids, carbohydrates and proteins. All lipids are
insoluble in water. Since they are repelled by water, they are known as hydrophobic molecules.

Functions

Out of all the important functions it performs, the most crucial one is building the cellular
membrane. The other functions it performs include insulation, energy storage, protection and cellular
communication. Cells are the building blocks of all organisms and lipids are considered the building
blocks of cells. Without lipids, your cells will not be able to survive.

Energy Storage

One of the main functions lipids do is storing energy. If a person eats excessive amount of food,
lipids help store the energy in the form of fat molecules in the body to use later.

Cell Structures

Lipids are present in every cell of the human body and are the main part of the cellular
membrane. It prevents the cells from being leaky by surrounding them the perfect way.

Hormones

Lipids are also essential for the human body as they are a part of many hormones. They play a
major role in regulating your growth and how your body works on a daily basis.

Digestion

Lipids also play an important part in the digestion of food. It is used to make bile acids n the
stomach which is essential for dissolving fat from the food you eat. This is essential for the process of
normal digestion of food and the absorption of fat soluble vitamins. They are also essential for the
transportation of fatty acids in the body.

Insulation and Protection

Lipids are needed to protect and insulate your body. To keep your internal body temperature
regular, there is a layer of fats just beneath the skin that is made from lipids. Similarly, there is a layer of
fats also around your vital organs that keeps them protected from injuries.

Lipid Formation

Excess carbohydrates in the diet are converted into triglycerides, which involves the synthesis of
fatty acids from acetyl-CoA in a process known as lipogenesis, and takes place in the endoplasmic
reticulum. In animals and fungi, a single multi-functional protein handles most of these processes, while
bacteria utilize multiple separate enzymes. Some types of unsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized
in mammalian cells, and so must be consumed as part of the diet, such as omega-3. Acetyl-CoA is also
involved in the mevalonate pathway, responsible for producing a wide range of isoprenoids, which
include important lipids such as cholesterol and steroid hormones.

Hydrolysable and Non-hydrolysable Lipids

Lipids that contain an ester functional group are hydrolysable in water. These include neutral
fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, made up of
glycerol (1,2,3-trihydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Triglycerides are found in the
blood, and stored in fat cells. Complete hydrolysis of triacylglycerols yields three fatty acids and a
glycerol molecule.

Non-hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins
(A, D, E, and K).

Fatty Acids

Fatty acids are long chain carboxylic acids (typically 16 or more carbon atoms) which may or may
not contain carbon-carbon double bonds. The number of carbon atoms are almost always an even
number and are usually unbranched. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in nature.

Waxes/Fat and Oils

These are esters with long-chain carboxylic acids and long-alcohols. Fat is the name given to a
class of triglycerides that appear as solid or semisolid at room temperature, fats are mainly present in
animals. Oils are triglycerides that appear as a liquid at room temperature, oils are mainly present in
plants and sometimes in fish.

Mono/Poly Unsaturated and Saturated

Those fatty acids with no carbon-carbon double bonds are called saturated. Those that have two
or more double bonds are called polyunsaturated. Oleic acid is monounsaturated, as it possesses a
single double bond. Saturated fats are typically solids and are derived from animals, while unsaturated
fats are liquids and usually extracted from plants. Unsaturated fats assume a particular geometry that
prevents the molecules from packing as efficiently as they do in saturated molecules, leading to their
propensity to exist as a liquid rather than a solid. Thus, the boiling point of unsaturated fats is lower
than that of saturated fats.

Synthesis and Function of Lipids in the Body

Lipids are utilized directly, or otherwise synthesized, from fats present in the diet. There are
numerous biosynthetic pathways to both break down and synthesize lipids in the body. The main
biological functions of lipids include storing energy, as lipids may be broken down to yield large amounts
of energy. Lipids also form the structural components of cell membranes, and form various messengers
and signaling molecules within the body.

References
 Ahmed S, Shah P, Ahmed O. Biochemistry, Lipids. [Updated 2021 May 9]. In: StatPearls
[Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525952/

What Are Lipids? (2020, August 14). Retrieved September 16, 2021, from
https://med.libretexts.org/@go/page/6001

http://www.biochem.wisc.edu/seminars/steenbock/symposium34/34th_Steenbock.pdf

http://www.chem.ucla.edu/harding/notes/notes_14C_lipids.pdf