Energy giving food: carbohydrates (CHO)

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Most, but not all carbohydrates have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water
molecule (hydrate of carbon), hence the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are polyhydric
aldehydes and ketones with the general formula CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n.

CLASSIFICATION
The simple carbohydrates
- The simple carbohydrates (the sugars) are those that chemists describe as
monosaccharides (single sugars) and disaccharides (pairs of monosaccharides). Of the
simple carbohydrates most important in nutrition, three are monosaccharides and three
are disaccharides.
- The monosaccharides are: glucose, fructose and galactose
- The disaccharides are: maltose (glucose + glucose), sucrose (glucose + fructose),
lactose (glucose + galactose)

Monosaccharides
1. Glucose - also known as physiologic sugar, blood sugar, dextrose, corn sugar, and
grape sugar. Principal product formed by the hydrolysis of more complex carbohydrates
during digestion. Form of sugar normally found in the blood. Predominant Energy source
for all the cells especially the central nervous system. Stored in the liver and muscle as
glycogen.
2. Fructose - also known as levulose and fruit sugar. Sweetest of the sugars. Highly soluble
and does not readily crystallize. Used commercially and does not readily crystallize.
Used commercially in sweeteners such as high-fructose corn syrup. Occurs naturally in
fruits and honey.
3. Galactose - rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar. Produced from lactose during
digestion.

Disaccharides
1. Sucrose - also known as table sugar or simply “sugar”, cane sugar, beet sugar, and
saccharose. Found mainly in molasses, maple syrup, and maple sugar. Prepared
commercially from sugar cane and sugar beets. When hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes
or acid, it is converted to a mixture of equal parts of glucose and fructose (invert sugar)
2. Maltose - also known as malt sugar and grain sugar. Formed in plants when seeds
germinate and in human beings during carbohydrate digestion Occurs during the
fermentation process that yields alcohol.
3. Lactose - also known as milk sugar. Only carbohydrates of animal origin that are of
significance in the human diet. About ⅙ as sweet as sugar and is the least sweet among
the common sugars.
The Complex Carbohydrates
The complex carbohydrates are composed of many glucose units and, in some cases, a
few other monosaccharides strung together as polysaccharides. Three types of polysaccharides
are important in nutrition:
1. Glycogen - often called “animal starch” and is structurally similar to amylopectin but
contains many more branched chains of glucose. Major form of stored carbohydrate
in human and animal tissues. Rapidly synthesized from glucose in the liver and
muscles where it is stored.
2. Starches - storage form of carbohydrates in plants found mostly in grains, legumes,
seeds, root crops, and tubers. Occur in both the amylose form (long straight chains of
glucose units) and the amylopectin form (long branched chains of glucose units).
Produce dextrins as intermediate products during hydrolysis
3. Fiber or Roughage - nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by GI tract
bacteria. Nonstarch polysaccharide fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins,
gums, and mucilages. Also include some non polysaccharides such as lignins, cutins,
and tannins. Structural parts of plants:
a. Soluble Fiber - fruit, legumes, barley, oats, delays glucose absorption, lower
blood cholesterol
b. Insoluble FIber - wheat bran, corn beans, whole grain breads, cereals and
vegetables accelerate gastro-intestinal transit and delays of glucose absorption.

FUNCTIONS
1. Source of Energy - yields approximately 4kcal/g
2. Protein sparer - adequate carbohydrates provide the body’s energy needs to ensure that
proteins will be used for building and repairing of body tissues.
3. Regulation of fat metabolism - adequate carbohydrates prevent the rapid oxidation of
fats which results in the accumulation of ketone bodies leading to ketosis
4. Roles in gastrointestinal function - lactose promotes the growth of desirable bacteria,
some of which are useful in the synthesis of the b-complex vitamins. Lactose enhances
the absorption of calcium. Fiber maintains gut integrity and ensures normal elimination of
waste.
5. Vital constituents of body compounds that regulate metabolism

DIGESTION
1. In the mouth - mechanical digestion tears fiber in food and is moistened by saliva.
Salivary amylase (ptyalin) hydrolyzes starch to shorter polysaccharides and to maltose
2. In the small intestine - pancreatic amylase breaks down polysaccharides to shorter
glucose chains and disaccharides. Disaccharides enzymes dismantle specific
disaccharides. All polysaccharides and disaccharides are broken down to
monosaccharides which are absorbed by the intestinal cell. Fiber is not digested and
delays the absorption of other nutrients.
METABOLISM
1. Using Glucose for Energy
- Glucose plays the central role in the carbohydrate metabolism and is used by the
body as a chief source of energy.
2. Storing Glucose as Glycogen (Glycogenesis)
- After a meal, blood glucose rises and cells in the liver and muscles link excess
glucose molecules by condensation reactions to make glycogen. The human
body stores much of its glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
- About ⅓ of the body’s glycogen is stored in the liver. Liver glycogen is used up
rapidly and must be replenished daily.
- Muscle cells store the remaining ⅔ of the body’s total glycogen but howard most
of it, using it only for themselves during exercise and other physical activities.
3. Converting Glycogen Stores to Glucose (Glycogenolysis)
- People who do not eat enough dietary carbohydrate survive by drawing energy
from their glycogen stores. When blood glucose falls, the liver cells dismantle the
glycogen by hydrolysis reactions to produce glucose which is released into the
bloodstream for use by body cells as needed.
4. Making Glucose from Protein (Gluconeogenesis)
- Body protein can be converted to glucose to some extent, but its main role is to
build and repair body tissues. Only a very small portion of body fat (glycerol) can
be converted to glucose. Thus, when dietary carbohydrate is inadequate, body
proteins are dismantled to make glucose for the body’s energy needs.
5. Making ketone Bodies from Fat Fragments
- Inadequate intake of dietary carbohydrates provides less glucose to meet the
body’s energy needs. When this happens, energy metabolism is shifted and fat
takes an alternative metabolic pathway. Instead of entering the main energy
pathway, fat fragments combine with each other forming ketone bodies (acetone,
acetoacetic acid, and beta-hydroxybutyric acid) which serve as an alternative fuel
during starvation.
- When the production of ketone bodies exceeds their use, they accumulate in the
blood causing ketosis. This disturbs the body’s normal acid-base balance. The
body needs at least 50 to 1000g of carbohydrates per day to spare body protein
and prevent ketosis.
6. Using Glucose to Make Fat (Lipogenesis)
- After meeting its energy needs and glycogen stores, the body uses any extra
glucose to make fat which is stored in adipose tissue.
- Glycogen can be stored to a limited extent and provides energy for relatively
short periods only. On the other hand, fat cells can store unlimited quantities of
fat which serves as more permanent energy-storage compounds.
RECOMMENDED INTAKE
- Dietary carbohydrates are the main sources of energy for man, providing 55-65% of the
total energy intake in different countries.
- A wide variation in carbohydrate intake is compatible with health because of the
interrelationships with fatty acids and amino acids in meeting the body’s energy needs.

FOOD SOURCES
- Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature, particularly in the vegetable kingdom.
- Cereals, grains, roots, tubers, and noodles contain mainly starch.
- Milk, which contains lactose, is the only animal food that contributes to carbohydrate
intake.

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
The Food and Drug Administration (DFA) has approved the use of several artificial sweeteners-
acesulfame potassium, aspartame, neotame, saccharin, and sucralose. Alitame and cyclamate
are awaiting FDA approval.
1. Acesulfame-K - approved for use by the FDA in 1988 and is used in more than 60
countries. ADI is 15mg/kg body weight
2. Aspartame - approved for use by the FDA in more than 100 countries. ADI is 50mg/kg
body weight. Composed of phenylalanine, aspartic acid, and a methyl group Because it
contains phenylalanine, the label must have a warning for people with
phenylketonuria(PKU).
3. Neotame - approved for use by the FDA in 2002. ADI is 18 mg/day. Composed of
phenylalanine, aspartic acid, a methyl group, and an additional side group which blocks
the digestive enzymes that normally separate phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Ths, both
amino acids are not absorbed and neotame needs to carry a warning for people with
PKU.
4. Saccharin - approved for use by the FDA in more than 100 countries. ADI is 5mg/kg
body weight. Unique because it is made from sugar that has had 3 of its hydroxyl(-OH)
groups replaced by chlorine atoms. The body does not recognize it as a carbohydrate so
it passes through the GI tract undigested and unabsorbed.
5. Sugar Replacers - the term describes the sugar alcohols like mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol,
maltitol, and dulcitol. Sugar alcohols occur naturally in fruits and vegetables and are
used by manufacturers as a low-calorie bulk ingredient that provides sweetness in
“sugar-free” or reduced-calorie products like hard candies, cookies, james, jellies, and
gums.
CARBOHYDRATES AND HEALTH
● Weight Management, Overweight, and Obesity
○ Taking calories in excess of body needs contributes to weight gain. The notion
that sweet food stimulates appetite and promotes overeating has not been
supported by research. Overweight or obesity can occur without a high sugar
diet.
○ For people whose excess calories come mainly from added sugars, limiting the
intake of foods and beverages high in added sugars can help reduce weight.
○ Foods rich in complex carbohydrates tend to be low in fat and added sugars.
They can promote weight loss by providing less calories.
○ High-fiber foods add bulk to the diet. They create feelings of satiety and delay
hunger. To use fiber in a weight loss plan, select fresh fruits, vegetables,
legumes, and whole-grain foods. They are economical, nutritious, and provide
fewer calories.
○ Get your daily fiber intake from natural foods, not fiber supplements.
● Dental Caries
○ The onset of dental caries depends on how long food stays in the mouth. Sticky
foods stay on the teeth longer and are fermented by mouth bacteria which
produce an acid that erodes the tooth enamel, causing tooth decay.
○ Another concern is frequent exposure of teeth surfaces to sugar. Bacteria
produce acid for 20 to 30 minutes after each exposure. Thus, it is better to eat
sugar with meals than between meals.
○ Good oral hygiene may be more effective in preventing dental caries than
restricting sugary foods.
● Diabetes
○ High-carbohydrate diets per se do not cause diabetes, nor is there convincing
evidence that sugar will cause it. Due to the high association between obesity
and type 2 diabetes, caloric control rather than the limitation of carbohydrate is
the most important factor in delaying its onset in susceptible individuals.
○ High-fiber foods help reduce the risk of type 3 diabetes. Viscous fibers trap
nutrients and delay their transit through the GI tract. They delay glucose
absorption which helps prevent the glucose surge and rebound that seem to be
associated with the onset of diabetes.
● Nutrient Intake
○ Sugar contributes to the caloric intake and palatability of the diet. However,
excessive intake of high-sugar foods delivers glucose and energy with few, if any
other nutrients thus contributing to nutrient deficiencies.
● Heart Disease
○ Among dietary risk factors, saturated fats, trans fats, and excess calories have
stronger associations with heart disease than do sugar intakes.
 ○ For most people, moderate intakes do not elevate blood lipids. For “carbohydrate
sensitive” individuals, high intakes of sugars can alter blood lipids to favor heart
disease.
○ High-carbohydrate diets, especially those rich in viscous fibers (such as oat,
barley, and legumes) may protect against heart disease and stroke. Such diets
are low in animal fat and cholesterol, and high in vegetable proteins and
phytochemicals.
● Cancer
○ Fibers help prevent colon cancer by diluting, binding, and removing potential
carcinogens from the colon. Viscous fibers stimulate bacterial fermentation of
resistant starch and fiber in the colon producing short-chain fatty acids that lower
the pH and inhibit cancer growth in the colon.
○ Although evidence gathered from studies are inconclusive, health care
professionals recommend a high-fiber diet with at least 5 servings of fruits and
vegetables and generous portions of whole grains and legumes.
● Behavioral Problems
○ Sugar has been blamed for the misbehaviours of hyperactive children, delinquent
adolescents, and lawbreaking adults. The claims are based largely on personal
stories and a few controlled studies. Conflicting reports have been obtained and
until more scientific evidence supports a relationship between sugar and
hyperactivity or other misbehaviors, it is not possible to draw any conclusions.
● Honey
○ The composition of honey varies, but a typical analysis is given at 36% glucose,
43% fructose, 2.7% sucrose, and 18.3% water. Contrary to belief, there are no
nutritional advantages in the choice of honey as sweeteners. Although honey
contains vitamins and minerals that are not available in refined sugars, the trace
amounts involved are inconsequential in terms of daily needs. Because sucrose
is rapidly hydrolyzed in the small intestine, there is little difference between sugar
and honey in absorption time.
● GI Health and Fibers
○ Dietary fibers enhance the health of the large intestine. The healthier the
intestinal walls, the better they can block the absorption of unwanted substances.
○ With ample fluids, fibers help to alleviate or prevent many GI disorders like
diarrhea, constipation, haemorrhoids, and diverticula. They help in the normal
elimination of waste and normalize intestinal transit time.
○ Despite the health benefits of fiber, a diet high in fiber has its drawbacks. Clearly
“more fiber is better” is true only up to a certain point. Balance, variety, and
moderation must be observed at all times.