LESSION 1 : MACRONUTRIENTS

Macronutrients are nutrients that are needed in the body in larger quantities (in gram range). They
normally include water, carbohydrates, fat and protein. Macronutrients (except water) are also
called energy-providing nutrients.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic compounds in the universe. They include the
structural parts of plants in the form of cellulose as well as stores of starches and sugars. The sun
is the ultimate source of energy for living organisms. By an exceedingly complex process known
as photosynthesis, the energy of the sun is utilized by chlorophyll (the green coloring matter in
leaves) to synthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide in the air and water from the soil. This is
probably the most important reaction for the continuance of life because the energy stored in the
leaves, stems, roots and seeds is used in turn by animal species
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6 O2.
Composition
Chemically, all carbohydrates are composed of the elements Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H)
And Oxygen (O). Like water, they have twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms. Each
particular carbohydrate has a distinct chemical arrangement which gives variation to their
sweetness and other physical properties.
With regard to dietary significance, starches and sugars account for more than half of the caloric
intake around the world.

Classification of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified into two:

A. Simple carbohydrates (Simples sugars)
B. Complex carbohydrates (Starches and fibre)
A. Simple Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharide and disaccharides referred to as sugars
Monosaccharide’s
These are the simplest form of carbohydrates, which do not require further hydrolysis as they are
composed of one [mono] carbohydrate unit.
There are three main monosaccharide’s which are most significant nutritionally i.e. glucose,
galactose and fructose. These have the same empirical formula, C6H12O6.
Monosaccharides are readily absorbed from the intestinal wall into the bloodstream. In their
groupings, they differ in the arrangement of the carbon atoms and are distinctive in their physical
properties, such as solubility in water and sweetness.
a. Glucose
Also known as dextrose, grape sugar or corn sugar, is less sweet than cane sugar and is soluble in
either hot or cold water. It is found in sweet fruits such as grapes, berries and oranges and in some
vegetables such as sweet corn and carrots.
It is also prepared commercially as corn syrup or in its crystalline form by the hydrolysis of starch
with acids.
Glucose is the chief end product of the digestion of disaccharides and polysaccharides. It is the
form in which carbohydrates circulate in the blood and which is utilized by the cell for energy.
b. Fructose
Fructose, also known as levulose or fruit sugar is a highly soluble sugar that does not
Readily crystallize. It is much sweeter than cane sugar and is found in honey, ripe
Fruits, and some vegetables. It is also a product of the hydrolysis of sucrose.
c. Galactose
This is not found free in nature, as its only source is the hydrolysis of lactose. When combined
with glucose, the milk sugar, lactose, is formed.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are double sugars [Cl2H22O11] that result when two units of hexoses
[monosaccharide] are combined together. They are water soluble, diffusible, and crystallisable
and vary widely in their sweetness.
They are split to simple sugars by acid hydrolysis or by digestive enzymes. The three disaccharides
which are important in nutrition are sucrose, maltose and lactose.
a. Sucrose
This is the familiar table sugar, which is found in cane or beet sugar, brown sugar,
Sorghum, molasses, and maple sugar. Many fruits and some vegetables contain small amounts. It
is mainly used in cookery. Sucrose is formed from one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose.
Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose.
b. Lactose,
Lactose or milk sugar is produced by mammals and is the only carbohydrate of animal origin that
is significant in the diet. It is especially an important source of energy for infants when on a milk
diet. It is about one sixth as sweet as sucrose and dissolves poorly in cold water. The concentration
of lactose in milk varies from 2 to 8 per cent, depending on the animal species. Lactose is formed
from one unit of glucose and one
Unit of galactose.
Glucose + Galactose = Lactose.
c. Maltose
Maltose or malt sugar is found in cereals e.g. barley and is formed during germination. It is an
intermediate product in the hydrolysis of starch and only occurs in very small amounts in foods.
Maltose is produced in the processes of malting and fermentation of grains and is present in beer
and malted break-fast cereals. It is also used with dextrin (as thickening agent in foods) as the
source of carbohydrate for some infant formulas. Maltose is formed from two units of glucose.

B. Complex Carbohydrates or Polysaccharides:

These are made of long chains of many sugar molecules. They are insoluble in water and are
digested with varying degrees of completeness.
They do not taste sweet because of the way their sugar molecules are arranged. Those that are
significant in nutrition include starch, dextrin, glycogen and fibre.
a. Starch
Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants and is found in large amounts in cereals, root
vegetables, and dry legumes. It is composed of several glucose molecules (hundreds to thousands)
which may be arranged in one long straight chain (amylose), or in a shorter branched chain
(amylopectin). Most starches contain 15% –30% amylose.
Starch is the chief form of carbohydrates in the diet. Different food sources have different physical
properties (solubility, thickening power and flavor), based on the ratio of amylose to amylopectin,
the starch granules are encased in a cellulose - type wall and are distinctive in size and shape for
each source.
When cooked in moist heat, the starch granules absorb water and swell, and the walls of the cell
rupture, thus permitting more ready access by the digestive enzymes. Amylopectin has colloidal
properties which cause a starch-water mixture to thicken when
Heat is applied.
 b. Dextrin’s
These are intermediate products that form when starch is subjected to enzyme action
(Digestion) or heat (as in cooking or toasting) and consist of shorter chains of glucose units.
Dextrins are more soluble and slightly sweeter than starch, but do not have the thickening power
of starch.
c. Glycogen
Glycogen or animal starch is similar in structure to the amylopectin of starch, but contains
Many more branched chains of glucose. Glycogen is the form in which carbohydrates are stored
in the body. It is synthesized from glucose and stored in the liver and muscle tissues as energy
reserve. When energy is required, it is converted to glucose.
d. Fibre:

Cellulose and hemicellulose cannot be hydrolyzed by enzymes of the human digestive tract, so
they yield no energy and are excreted in the faeces. Tough fibres including seeds, skins, and
structural parts of plant foods are broken into smaller particles, whereas the more tender fibres of
young plants may be partially disintegrated by bacterial action within the large intestine. The
cooking of foods also softens fibres and partially disintegrates them.
Sources of Carbohydrates
Cereals – These include Maize, Wheat, Rice, Millet and all their products
Legumes – All varieties of beans, Peas, Green grams, Groundnuts
Roots & Tubers – Potatoes, Yams, Bananas, Cassava, Arrow roots, sweet potatoes
Fruits & Vegetables – All types of fruits and starchy vegetables and also cane sugar
Added sugar in foods and drinks with empty calories

Functions of Carbohydrates

The primary function of carbohydrates is to provide energy for the cells. Glucose is burned more
efficiently and more completely than either protein or fat and it does not leave end product that the
body must excrete. Almost all of the dietary carbohydrates are eventually utilized to meet the body’s
energy needs. Only a very small fraction of the available carbohydrates is used for the synthesis of
various regulatory compounds.
a. Energy Source:
Carbohydrates are the most economical and efficient source of energy. Each gram of carbohydrate
when oxidized yields, on the average, 4 calories (E.g. one tablespoon of sugar contains 12 g of
carbohydrate and hence yields 48 kcal (12 x 4 = 48 kcal). Some carbohydrate in the form of glucose
will be used directly to meet immediate tissue energy needs, a small amount will be stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscles, and some will be stored as adipose tissue for later conversion
to energy. Glucose is the sole form of energy for the brain and nervous tissue and must be available
moment by moment for the functioning of these tissues. Any failure to supply glucose or the
oxygen for its oxidation rapidly damages the brain.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrate in the body. At any given time about 100 gm.
glycogen can be stored in the liver and is available to replenish the glucose level of the blood.
Cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscles contain about 200 to 250 gm. glycogen that is instantly
available within the muscle but is not available for regulation of the blood sugar level. Together,
muscle and liver glycogen if completely used could meet no more than half the day's energy need.
b. Protein-sparing action:
The body will use carbohydrate preferentially as a source of energy when it is adequately supplied
in the diet, thus sparing protein for tissue building. Since meeting energy needs of the body takes
priority over other functions, using adipose and protein tissues will make up any deficiency of
calories in the diet.
c. Regulation of fat metabolism:
Some carbohydrate is necessary in the diet so that the oxidation of fats can proceed normally. When
carbohydrate is severely restricted in the diet, fats will be metabolised faster than the body can take
care of the intermediate products. The accumulation of these incompletely oxidised products leads
to ketosis. Carbohydrate must be almost completely lacking in the diet for acidosis to occur under
normal conditions, but it is common in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus.
d. Role in gastrointestinal function:
Several regulatory functions have been attributed to lactose.
 Lactose promotes the growth of desirable bacteria in the small intestine. Some of these bacteria
are useful in the synthesis of certain B complex vitamins.
 Lactose also enhances the absorption of calcium. It is undoubtedly no accident of nature that
milk, which is the out-standing source of calcium, is also the only dietary source of lactose.
 Cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin’s yield no nutrients to the body. These indigestible
substances aid in the stimulation of the peristaltic movements of the gastrointestinal tract, and
by absorbing water gives bulk to the intestinal contents and reduces the length of time food
wastes stay in the colon.
e. Component of various body compounds:
Structurally, carbohydrates account for a very small part of the body weight.
Nevertheless, monosaccharide are vitally important constituents of numerous compounds that
regulate metabolism. Examples of these are:
 Glucuronic acid, which occurs in the liver and is also a constituent of a number of
mucopolysaccharides. Glucuronic acid in the liver combines with toxic chemicals and bacterial
by-products, thus acting as a detoxifying agent.
 Hyaluronic acid, a substance found in the fluid that lubricates the joints and the vitreous
humour of the eyeball.
 Heparin, the naturally occurring anticoagulant in blood.
 Chondroitin sulphates found in skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and heart valves.
 Immunopolysaccharides as part of the body's mechanism to resist infections.
 Galactolipins as constituents of nervous tissue.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), the compounds that possess and
transfer the genetic or hereditary characteristics of the cell.
 Glycosides as components of steroid and adrenal hormones.
 Keratan sulphate, present in hard structures like fingernails

Dietary Fiber
Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, includes the parts of plant foods the body can't
digest or absorb. Unlike other food components, such as fats, proteins or carbohydrates – which
the body breaks down and absorbs – fiber isn't digested by the body. Instead, it passes relatively
intact through the stomach, small intestine and colon and out of the body.
Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes,
a definition that includes lignin and polysaccharides. The definition was later changed to also
include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides.
Fiber is commonly classified as soluble, which dissolves in water, or insoluble, which doesn't
dissolve.
Soluble fiber. This is the type of fiber that dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. It can
help lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas, beans, apples,
citrus fruits, carrots, barley and psyllium.
Insoluble fiber. This is the type of fiber that promotes the movement of material through the
digestive system and increases stool bulk, so it can be of benefit to those who struggle with
constipation or irregular stools. Whole-wheat flour, wheat bran, nuts, beans and vegetables, such
as cauliflower, green beans and potatoes, are good sources of insoluble fiber. Most plant-based
foods, such as oatmeal and beans, contain both soluble and insoluble fiber.
However, the amount of each type varies in different plant foods. To receive the greatest health
benefit, eat a wide variety of high-fiber foods.
Other Classifications of Fibre:
In addition to being classified according to their solubility, they can also be classified according
to other physical properties that affect their function and nutrient absorption.
The physical properties include:
Water-holding capacity: the capacity to capture water like a sponge, thus swelling
And increasing the bulk of the intestinal contents.
Viscosity: the capacity to form viscous, gel-like solution
Cation - exchange capacity: the ability to bind minerals.
Bile-binding capacity: the ability to bind to bile acids.
Fermentability: the extent to which bacteria in the GI tract can break down fibers to fragments
that the body can use.
Generally, fibers are often described as non - starch polysaccharides and they include cellulose,
hemicelluloses, pectin’s, gums and mucilages. Fibers also include some non-polysaccharides
such as lignins, cutins and tannins.
Even though most are polysaccharides, fibers differ from starches in that human digestive enzymes
cannot break down the bonds between their monosaccharide.
a. Cellulose:
Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound in the world, comprising of about 50 per cent
of the carbon in vegetation. This is the primary constituent of plant cell walls and therefore, occurs
in all vegetables, fruits, and legumes. Like starch, cellulose is composed of glucose molecules
connected in long chains. Unlike starch, however, the chains do not branch, and the bonds linking
the glucose molecules together resist digestion by human enzymes. Ruminants are able to utilize
cellulose for energy because of the presence of specific enzymes in their rumen.
b. Hemicelluloses:
These are the main constituents of cereal fibers. They are composed of various
Monosaccharide backbones with branching side - chains of monosaccharide.
The many backbones and side chains make the hemicelluloses a diverse group. Some are soluble,
while others are insoluble.
The most common backbone monosaccharide are xylose, mannose and galactose. The common
side chains are arabinose, glucuronic acid and galactose.
c. Pectins:
All pectins consist of a backbone derived from carbohydrates with side chains of various
monosaccharide. They are commonly found in vegetables and fruits (especially citrus fruits and
apples). Pectins may be isolated and used by the food industry to thicken jelly, keep salad dressings
from separating and otherwise control texture and consistency. They are able to perform these
functions because they readily form gels in water.
d. Gums and mucilages:
When a plant is cut, it secretes gum from the site of the injury. Like the other fibers, gums are
composed of various monosaccharide and their derivatives. Gums such as gum Arabic are used as
additives by the food industry. Mucilages are similar to gums in structure. They include guar and
carrageenan, which are added to foods as stabilizers.
e. Lignin:
This nonpolysaccharide fibre has a three-dimensional structure that gives it strength. Due to its
toughness, few of the foods that people eat contain much lignin. It occurs in the woody parts of
vegetables such as carrots and the small seeds of fruits such as strawberries.
Several indigestible polysaccharides have useful properties in food processing. Pectins, for
example, found in ripe fruits, have the ability to absorb water and to form gel, a property utilized
in making fruit jellies. Agar is obtained from seaweed and is useful for its gelling properties.
Carrageen (Irish moss) and alginates from seaweed are often used to enhance the smoothness of
foods such as ice cream and evaporated milk.
2.1.6 Sources of Fiber:
a. Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:
 Legumes (peas, soybeans, lupins and other beans)
 Oats, rye, chia, and barley
 Some fruits (including figs, avocados, plums, prunes, berries, ripe bananas, and the skin
of apples, quinces and pears)
 Certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and Jerusalem artichokes
 Root tubers and root vegetables such as sweet potatoes and onions (skins of these are
sources of insoluble fiber also)
 Psyllium seed husks (a mucilage soluble fiber) and flax seeds
 Nuts, with almonds being the highest in dietary fiber
b. Insoluble fiber include:
 Whole grain foods
 Wheat and corn bran
 Legumes such as beans and peas
 Nuts and seeds
 Potato skins
 Lignins
 Vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini (courgettes), celery, and nopal
 Some fruits including avocado, and unripe bananas
 The skins of some fruits, including kiwi fruit, grapes and tomatoes