Energy giving food: carbohydrates (CHO)
Maltose - also known as malt sugar and grain
DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain
the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most, but
not all carbohydrates have a ratio of one carbon
molecule to one water molecule (hydrate of carbon),
hence the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are
polyhydric aldehydes and ketones with the general
formula CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n.
CLASSIFICATION
The simple carbohydrates
- The simple carbohydrates (the sugars) are
those that chemists describe as
monosaccharides (single sugars) and
disaccharides (pairs of monosaccharides).
Of the simple carbohydrates most important in
nutrition, three are monosaccharides and three
are disaccharides.
- The monosaccharides are: glucose, fructose
and galactose
- The disaccharides are: maltose (glucose +
glucose), sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose
(glucose + galactose)
Monosaccharides
1. Glucose - also known as physiologic sugar,
blood sugar, dextrose, corn sugar, and grape
sugar. Principal product formed by the
hydrolysis of more complex carbohydrates
during digestion. Form of sugar normally found
in the blood. Predominant Energy source for
all the cells especially the central nervous
system. Stored in the liver and muscle as
glycogen.
2. Fructose - also known as levulose and fruit
sugar. Sweetest of the sugars. Highly soluble
and does not readily crystallize. Used
commercially and does not readily crystallize.
Used commercially in sweeteners such as
high-fructose corn syrup. Occurs naturally in
fruits and honey.
3. Galactose - rarely occurs naturally as a single
sugar. Produced from lactose during digestion.
Disaccharides
1. Sucrose - also known as table sugar or simply
“sugar”, cane sugar, beet sugar, and
saccharose. Found mainly in molasses, maple
syrup, and maple sugar. Prepared
commercially from sugar cane and sugar
beets. When hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes
or acid, it is converted to a mixture of equal
parts of glucose and fructose (invert sugar)
2.
sugar. Formed in plants when seeds
germinate and in human beings during
carbohydrate digestion Occurs during the
fermentation process that yields alcohol.
3. Lactose - also known as milk sugar. Only
carbohydrates of animal origin that are of
significance in the human diet. About ⅙ as
sweet as sugar and is the least sweet among
the common sugars.
The Complex Carbohydrates
The complex carbohydrates are composed of
many glucose units and, in some cases, a few other
monosaccharides strung together as polysaccharides.
Three types of polysaccharides are important in
nutrition:
1. Glycogen - often called “animal starch” and is
structurally similar to amylopectin but contains
many more branched chains of glucose. Major
form of stored carbohydrate in human and
animal tissues. Rapidly synthesized from
glucose in the liver and muscles where it is
stored.
2. Starches - storage form of carbohydrates in
plants found mostly in grains, legumes, seeds,
root crops, and tubers. Occur in both the
amylose form (long straight chains of glucose
units) and the amylopectin form (long
branched chains of glucose units). Produce
dextrins as intermediate products during
hydrolysis
3. Fiber or Roughage - nonstarch
polysaccharides that are not digested by GI
tract bacteria. Nonstarch polysaccharide fibers
include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins,
gums, and mucilages. Also include some non
polysaccharides such as lignins, cutins, and
tannins. Structural parts of plants:
a. Soluble Fiber - fruit, legumes, barley,
oats, delays glucose absorption, lower
blood cholesterol
b. Insoluble FIber - wheat bran, corn
beans, whole grain breads, cereals
and vegetables accelerate gastro-
intestinal transit and delays of glucose
absorption.
FUNCTIONS
1. Source of Energy - yields approximately
4kcal/g
2. Protein sparer - adequate carbohydrates
provide the body’s energy needs to ensure
that proteins will be used for building and
repairing of body tissues.
3. Regulation of fat metabolism - adequate
carbohydrates prevent the rapid oxidation of
 fats which results in the accumulation of
ketone bodies leading to ketosis
4. Roles in gastrointestinal function - lactose
promotes the growth of desirable bacteria,
some of which are useful in the synthesis of
the b-complex vitamins. Lactose enhances the
absorption of calcium. Fiber maintains gut
integrity and ensures normal elimination of
waste.
5. Vital constituents of body compounds that
regulate metabolism
DIGESTION
1. In the mouth - mechanical digestion tears
fiber in food and is moistened by saliva.
Salivary amylase (ptyalin) hydrolyzes starch to
shorter polysaccharides and to maltose
2. In the small intestine - pancreatic amylase
breaks down polysaccharides to shorter
glucose chains and disaccharides.
Disaccharides enzymes dismantle specific
disaccharides. All polysaccharides and
disaccharides are broken down to
monosaccharides which are absorbed by the
intestinal cell. Fiber is not digested and delays
the absorption of other nutrients.
METABOLISM
1. Using Glucose for Energy
- Glucose plays the central role in the
carbohydrate metabolism and is used
by the body as a chief source of
energy.
2. Storing Glucose as Glycogen
(Glycogenesis)
- After a meal, blood glucose rises and
cells in the liver and muscles link
excess glucose molecules by
condensation reactions to make
glycogen. The human body stores
much of its glucose as glycogen in the
liver and muscles.
- About ⅓ of the body’s glycogen is
stored in the liver. Liver glycogen is
used up rapidly and must be
replenished daily.
- Muscle cells store the remaining ⅔ of
the body’s total glycogen but howard
most of it, using it only for themselves
during exercise and other physical
activities.
3. Converting Glycogen Stores to Glucose
(Glycogenolysis)
- People who do not eat enough dietary
carbohydrate survive by drawing
energy from their glycogen stores.
When blood glucose falls, the liver
cells dismantle the glycogen by
hydrolysis reactions to produce
glucose which is released into the
bloodstream for use by body cells as
needed.
4. Making Glucose from Protein
(Gluconeogenesis)
- Body protein can be converted to
glucose to some extent, but its main
role is to build and repair body tissues.
Only a very small portion of body fat
(glycerol) can be converted to
glucose. Thus, when dietary
carbohydrate is inadequate, body
proteins are dismantled to make
glucose for the body’s energy needs.
5. Making ketone Bodies from Fat Fragments
- Inadequate intake of dietary
carbohydrates provides less glucose
to meet the body’s energy needs.
When this happens, energy
metabolism is shifted and fat takes an
alternative metabolic pathway. Instead
of entering the main energy pathway,
fat fragments combine with each other
forming ketone bodies (acetone,
acetoacetic acid, and beta-
hydroxybutyric acid) which serve as
an alternative fuel during starvation.
- When the production of ketone bodies
exceeds their use, they accumulate in
the blood causing ketosis. This
disturbs the body’s normal acid-base
balance. The body needs at least 50
to 1000g of carbohydrates per day to
spare body protein and prevent
ketosis.
6. Using Glucose to Make Fat (Lipogenesis)
- After meeting its energy needs and
glycogen stores, the body uses any
extra glucose to make fat which is
stored in adipose tissue.
- Glycogen can be stored to a limited
extent and provides energy for
relatively short periods only. On the
other hand, fat cells can store
unlimited quantities of fat which serves
as more permanent energy-storage
compounds.
RECOMMENDED INTAKE
- Dietary carbohydrates are the main sources of
energy for man, providing 55-65% of the
total energy intake in different countries.
- A wide variation in carbohydrate intake is
compatible with health because of the
 interrelationships with fatty acids and amino
acids in meeting the body’s energy needs.
FOOD SOURCES
- Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature,
particularly in the vegetable kingdom.
- Cereals, grains, roots, tubers, and noodles
contain mainly starch.
- Milk, which contains lactose, is the only animal
food that contributes to carbohydrate intake.
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
The Food and Drug Administration (DFA) has
approved the use of several artificial sweeteners-
acesulfame potassium, aspartame, neotame,
saccharin, and sucralose. Alitame and cyclamate are
awaiting FDA approval.
1. Acesulfame-K - approved for use by the FDA
in 1988 and is used in more than 60 countries.
ADI is 15mg/kg body weight
2. Aspartame - approved for use by the FDA in
more than 100 countries. ADI is 50mg/kg
body weight. Composed of phenylalanine,
aspartic acid, and a methyl group Because it
contains phenylalanine, the label must have a
warning for people with phenylketonuria(PKU).
3. Neotame - approved for use by the FDA in
2002. ADI is 18 mg/day. Composed of
phenylalanine, aspartic acid, a methyl group,
and an additional side group which blocks the
digestive enzymes that normally separate
phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Ths, both
amino acids are not absorbed and neotame
needs to carry a warning for people with PKU.
4. Saccharin - approved for use by the FDA in
more than 100 countries. ADI is 5mg/kg body
weight. Unique because it is made from sugar
that has had 3 of its hydroxyl(-OH) groups
replaced by chlorine atoms. The body does
not recognize it as a carbohydrate so it passes
through the GI tract undigested and
unabsorbed.
5. Sugar Replacers - the term describes the
sugar alcohols like mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol,
maltitol, and dulcitol. Sugar alcohols occur
naturally in fruits and vegetables and are used
by manufacturers as a low-calorie bulk
ingredient that provides sweetness in “sugar-
free” or reduced-calorie products like hard
candies, cookies, james, jellies, and gums.
CARBOHYDRATES AND HEALTH
● Weight Management, Overweight, and Obesity
○ Taking calories in excess of body
needs contributes to weight gain. The
notion that sweet food stimulates
appetite and promotes overeating has
not been supported by research.
Overweight or obesity can occur
without a high sugar diet.
○ For people whose excess calories
come mainly from added sugars,
limiting the intake of foods and
beverages high in added sugars can
help reduce weight.
○ Foods rich in complex carbohydrates
tend to be low in fat and added
sugars. They can promote weight loss
by providing less calories.
○ High-fiber foods add bulk to the diet.
They create feelings of satiety and
delay hunger. To use fiber in a weight
loss plan, select fresh fruits,
vegetables, legumes, and whole-grain
foods. They are economical,
nutritious, and provide fewer calories.
○ Get your daily fiber intake from natural
foods, not fiber supplements.
● Dental Caries
○ The onset of dental caries depends on
how long food stays in the mouth.
Sticky foods stay on the teeth longer
and are fermented by mouth bacteria
which produce an acid that erodes the
tooth enamel, causing tooth decay.
○ Another concern is frequent exposure
of teeth surfaces to sugar. Bacteria
produce acid for 20 to 30 minutes after
each exposure. Thus, it is better to eat
sugar with meals than between meals.
○ Good oral hygiene may be more
effective in preventing dental caries
than restricting sugary foods.
● Diabetes
○ High-carbohydrate diets per se do not
cause diabetes, nor is there
convincing evidence that sugar will
cause it. Due to the high association
between obesity and type 2 diabetes,
caloric control rather than the
limitation of carbohydrate is the most
important factor in delaying its onset in
susceptible individuals.
○ High-fiber foods help reduce the risk
of type 3 diabetes. Viscous fibers trap
nutrients and delay their transit
through the GI tract. They delay
glucose absorption which helps
prevent the glucose surge and
rebound that seem to be associated
with the onset of diabetes.
● Nutrient Intake
○ Sugar contributes to the caloric intake
and palatability of the diet. However,
excessive intake of high-sugar foods
 delivers glucose and energy with few,
if any other nutrients thus contributing
to nutrient deficiencies.
● Heart Disease
○ Among dietary risk factors, saturated
fats, trans fats, and excess calories
have stronger associations with heart
disease than do sugar intakes.
○ For most people, moderate intakes do
not elevate blood lipids. For
“carbohydrate sensitive” individuals,
high intakes of sugars can alter blood
lipids to favor heart disease.
○ High-carbohydrate diets, especially
those rich in viscous fibers (such as
oat, barley, and legumes) may protect
against heart disease and stroke.
Such diets are low in animal fat and
cholesterol, and high in vegetable
proteins and phytochemicals.
● Cancer
○ Fibers help prevent colon cancer by
diluting, binding, and removing
potential carcinogens from the colon.
Viscous fibers stimulate bacterial
fermentation of resistant starch and
fiber in the colon producing short-
chain fatty acids that lower the pH and
inhibit cancer growth in the colon.
○ Although evidence gathered from
studies are inconclusive, health care
professionals recommend a high-fiber
diet with at least 5 servings of fruits
and vegetables and generous portions
of whole grains and legumes.
minerals that are not available in
refined sugars, the trace amounts
involved are inconsequential in terms
of daily needs. Because sucrose is
rapidly hydrolyzed in the small
intestine, there is little difference
between sugar and honey in
absorption time.
● GI Health and Fibers
○ Dietary fibers enhance the health of
the large intestine. The healthier the
intestinal walls, the better they can
block the absorption of unwanted
substances.
○ With ample fluids, fibers help to
alleviate or prevent many GI disorders
like diarrhea, constipation,
haemorrhoids, and diverticula. They
help in the normal elimination of waste
and normalize intestinal transit time.
○ Despite the health benefits of fiber, a
diet high in fiber has its drawbacks.
Clearly “more fiber is better” is true
only up to a certain point. Balance,
variety, and moderation must be
observed at all times.

● Behavioral Problems
○ Sugar has been blamed for the
misbehaviours of hyperactive children,
delinquent adolescents, and
lawbreaking adults. The claims are
based largely on personal stories and
a few controlled studies. Conflicting
reports have been obtained and until
more scientific evidence supports a
relationship between sugar and
hyperactivity or other misbehaviors, it
is not possible to draw any
conclusions.
● Honey
○ The composition of honey varies, but
a typical analysis is given at 36%
glucose, 43% fructose, 2.7% sucrose,
and 18.3% water. Contrary to belief,
there are no nutritional advantages in
the choice of honey as sweeteners.
Although honey contains vitamins and