CELLS
- basic unit of life
- all organisms are composed of cells
- all living things are made up of cells
- new cells arise only from preexisting cell
- bounded by a selectively permeable
membrane
A. PROKARYOTIC CELL
- Greek = before the nucleus
- single celled organism
- Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
- no nucleus
- DNA is not separated from other components
- Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
- Smaller than eukaryotic cells
- Have a single chromosome, semifluid
cytoplasm, and thousands of ribosomes
B. EUKARYOTIC CELL
- greek = true nucleus
- contain a well-defined nucleus surrounded by
a nuclear membrane
- can be single celled, such as yeast and
paramecium, or multicellular, such as animals
and plants
- Cytoskeleton= protein fibers that maintain cell
shape
- Have membrane-bound nucleus and
organelles
*Endomembrane system: endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes
*Energy-related organelles: mitochondria and
chloroplasts
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all
living organisms. It is made of three major parts:
THE CELL'S PARTS
1. The plasma membrane
2. The cytoplasm
3. The nucleus
A. THE PLASMA MEMBRANE (SKIN):
- Cell Membrane
- The plasma membrane (also called
plasmalemma) forms the outer boundary of
the cell
- semi-permeable
- It is the outer protective layer of cell. It isolates
cell from neighbouring environment.
- composed of proteins (structural; proteins)
- a selective barrier that allows sufficient
passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to
service the volume of every cell
- The general structure of a biological
membrane is a double layer of phospholipids
FUNCTIONS:
- maintains shape
- contains the contents inside
- prevents cell from mixing
- controls entrance and exit of materials
- protects the cell
STRUCTURE:
According to the "Fluid Mosaic Model Theory"
postulated by Singer & Nicolson, the plasma
membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
1. ) THE PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- form a fluid "sea" made of a central
bimolecular layer; here the long hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids (tails) are
attached to the hydrophilic globular portions
of phosphate (head).
2. ) THE PROTEINS
- float like "icebergs"
- Depending on their position they can be
classified as:
a.) Peripheral proteins- which associates to
the globular portions of phospholipids.
- they act as transporters or receptors
b.) Integral proteins- which are attached to
the hydrophobic portion.
- they act as cytoskeleton anchors or
enzymes
3. ) THE CARBOHYDRATES
- consist of glycolipids and glycoproteins which
form a filmy covering called the glycocalyx; it
acts as:
a.) an adhesive between cells.
b.) site for immunological response
c.) cell identity markers.
4. ) CHOLESTEROL
- attached to phospholipid chains; it determines
the fluidity of the plasma membrane.
MOVEMENT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANES:
- Two basic types of molecular traffic take place
in and out of cells: passive movement and
active movement
1. ) PASSIVE MOVEMENT
- Molecules pass through the plasma membrane
according to their concentration gradient
(meaning from areas of high concentration to
areas of low concentration without the use of
energy (ATP)). Passive movement includes the
following:
a. ) DIFFUSION - random movement of
molecules from areas where they are highly
concentrated to areas where they are less
concentrated until a uniform distribution of
molecules is achieved.
- (e.g.) inhaled O2 -> Lung -> Bloodstream
b. ) FACILITATED DIFFUSION - when carrier
proteins in the plasma membrane combine
temporarily to molecules and allow them to
pass through membrane via protein channels;
 they move from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration.
- (e.g.) - absorption of glucose or amino
acids by the duodenum during digestion.
c.) OSMOSIS - when water molecules move
through a selectively permeable membrane
from an area of high concentration of water to
an area of low concentration of water.
 Osmotic Pressure is the force exerted
by a highly concentrated solution "A"
which prevents the net flow of water
across the selectively permeable
membrane coming from a lower
concentrated solution "B".
 Osmotic pressure concept has its
application in chemistry, biology, and
medicine, and allows one to
distinguish three types of solutions:
 Hypotonic solution
- when the solute concentration is lower
outside the cell than it is inside the cell
- (e.g.) when pure water is exposed to red
blood cells (RBC), hemolysis occurs due
the swelling and bursting of RBCs
 Isotonic solution
- when the water and solute concentration
outside the cell is the same as inside the cell.
- (e.g.) exposition of Red Blood Cells to a
solution containing 0.85g of sodium chloride
per 100 ml. water (physiological solution) does
not result in the net movement of water into
or out of the RBCs.
 Hypertonic solution
- when the solute concentration is higher
outside of the cell than it is inside.
- (e.g.) Exposition of RBCs in a solution
containing 100g sodium chloride per 100 ml;
results in crenation due to the loss of water by
RBC and the shrinkage.
d.) FILTRATION- Process that forces small
particles dissolved in a solution to cross the s
emipermeable membrane with the help of
hydrostatic pressure.
- (e.g.) Ultrafiltration of blood by the
glomeruli of the kidneys
e.) DIALYSIS- Exchange of solutes between two
solutions separated by a semipermeable
membrane
- (e.g.) Use of the cellophane sheets in the
artificial kidney machine is based upon this
principle.
2. ) ACTIVE MOVEMENT
- When substances move across a selectively
permeable membrane from areas of low
concentration to areas of high concentration.
Since active movement is against the
concentration gradient, it requires energy in
the form of ATP.
- Active movement includes the following:
a.) active transport
b.) exocytosis
c.) endocytosis
a. ) ACTIVE TRANSPORT - uses energy from
the breakdown of ATP to move substances
across selectively permeable membrane
against a concentration gradient.
- (e.g.) continuous transport of sodium out
of resting cells by the "sodium-pump" even
though its concentration is much higher
outside of the cell.
b. ) EXOCYTOSIS - is the fusion of secretory
vesicles with the plasma membrane, followed
by their expulsion from the cell through the
plasma membrane.
- (e.g. ) release of neurotransmitters by the
neurons
c.) ENDOCYTOSIS - process during which
particles are engulfed by cytoplasmic
extensions, thus forming membrane bound
vesicles within the cytoplasm.
- there are three types of endocytosis:
 Pinocytosis
- (also called "Cell Drinking")
- is the process during which the plasma
membrane invaginates and encloses small
amounts of fluid droplets, thus forming small
pockets which are released into the
cytoplasm. (e.g. Kidney cells take in tissue
fluids to maintain fluid balance).
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- when extracellular large molecules bind with
specific receptors on plasma membrane,
causing the membrane to invaginate and draw
them into the cytoplasm
 Phagocytosis
- called "Cell Eating"
- is the ability of the plasma membrane to
engulf large particles (foreign bodies, bacteria),
and digesting them by fusing the pocket into
which they are contained with lysosomal
enzyme. (e.g. neutrophils digest harmful
bacteria)
B. CYTOPLASM (BLOOS)
- Cyto= Cell
- Plasm= fluid
- living substance of cell
- rich in organic and inorganic compounds
- is the portion of the cell located between the
plasma membrane and the nucleus
- free floating
- Contains Organelles
- Source of energy
- is the mass of living matter between cell wall
and nucleus.
- It contains stored foods, secretion granules,
pigments and crystals. Stored foods are
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and
vitamins.
- Pigments are two types:
a. ) ENDOGENOUS - pigments are
haemoglobin and melanin
b. ) EXOGENOUS - pigments are
carotene from vegetables, dusts
(carbon) and minerals (silver, lead
etc.)
- It consists of an aqueous phase and an
particulate phase:
a. ) AQUEOUS PHASE OR "FLUID PHASE"
- consists of cytosol. The cytosol is
composed of water (75% to 90%), proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
inorganic substances.
b. ) PARTICULATE PHASE - consist of
organelles and inclusions:
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Blood vessels)
- parallel arrays of canals
- attaches to the nuclear envelope
- transport of substances
- a membranous system where ribosomes
attach and aid in protein synthesis
- is a network of tubes and flattened sacs that
channels the flow of substances around the
cytoplasm.
- is system that continues with infoldings of cell
membrane and interlaces with the interior of
cell
- Two types of "ER" are distinguishable: Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum "SER" and Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum "RER".
a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
- is a delicate branching network of tubules
free of ribosomes.
- lacks proteins and is where lipids are
made
- is the site of steroids synthesis, especially
steroid hormones (e.g. progesterone,
estrogen, testosterone).
- is involved in the degradation of
hormones and drugs in the liver cells.
- stores calcium in striated muscles.
b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
- is a complex system of branching tubes
and flattened sacs covered by ribosomes
on their surface.
 - assists in protein synthesis and translation
of language of nucleic acid
 Cell Wall
- extracellular structure that distinguishes plant
cells from animal cells
- protects the plant cell, maintains its shape,
and prevents excessive uptake of water
- Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
 Ribosomes
- creates protein
- non-membrane-bound particles where protein
synthesis occurs
- tiny spherical structures
- are sites of protein synthesis
- are spherical nonmembranous-bound
organelles made of two subunits:
(a.) The small ribosomal subunit.
(b.) The large ribosomal subunit
- are usually grouped in clusters in the
cytoplasm and are then called polysomes
 Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex (Mouth)
- series of smooth membrane
- continuous with endoplasmic reticulum
- prepare materials for digestion
- packaging of food materials in preparation for
digestion
- series of five to seven flattened sacs, involved
in processing, storing, and packaging of
secretory proteins.
- Composed of four or more stacked layers of
thin, flat enclosed vesicles lying near the
nucleus
- One side is directed toward the ER and t
- sorts and packages proteins and lipids in
vesicles
- Prominent in secretory cells where it is located
on the side of the cell from which secretory
substances are released
- Golgi apparatus functions with the ER, where
transport vesicles bud off the ER and diffuse to
the Golgi apparatus – the Golgi apparatus
processes ER vesicles to form lysosomes,
secretory vesicles, or other cytoplasmic
components
- Involved in the formation of some large
saccharide polymers bound with a small
amount of protein, such as hyaluronic acid and
chondroitin sulfate
 Lysosomes (Stomach)
- membrane-bound vesicles produced by the
Golgi apparatus
- Important in recycling cellular material and
digesting worn-out organelles
- Suicide bags with enzymes
- secretes enzymes like hydrochloric acid to
broken down nutrients and food materials and
also viruses
- Phagocytosis
- membrane-bound organelles that contain
digestive enzymes (acid hydrolase); act as the
digestive system of the cell; also known as
"suicide bags".
- They contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
- are absent in RBC
- Breaking down of particles taken in to cell and
digestion
- Autolysis
- Phagocytosis
- Killing of cells (planned way)
- Cell division
 Centrosome
- cell center
- centrioles and asters (used for cell division)
- used in cell division
 Peroxisomes
- small, membrane-bound organelles
resembling empty lysosomes
- Contain enzymes to digest excess fatty acids
*Produces products used by mitochondria
to make ATP
- Produce cholesterol and phospholipids found
in brain and heart tissue
- similar to lysosome
- purine (end product) catabolism
- converts fat into glucose (energy)
- membrane-bound organelles found mostly in
the liver, in the kidney and the macrophages
- contain enzymes (peroxidase) which are
involved in the formation of hydrogen
peroxide as they oxidize various substances.
 Mitochondrion/ Mitochondria (Liver- secretes
energy)
- hotdog like, spherical, rod shaped, hollow
structure
- are the "powerhouses" of the cell because of
ATP production.
- provide energy; convert sugar into ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) or enegry
- provide site for synthesis of RNA and DNA
- were also derived from bacteria and therefore
have a double membrane
- Double layered membrane organelle with its
inner layer thrown into folds called "cristae"
projecting into the inner cavity filled with
amorphous substance called "matrix" where
different enzymes are found.
- are abundant in different types of cells such as
myofibers, neurons, spermatozoa
- Is the site of the final steps in cellular
respiration, which result in the production of
ATP used in the cell metabolic activities.
 ATP
- ATP means Adenosine Triphosphate
- ATP is the main energy supplier for most
biological activities in the cell. The phosphate
bond (the P of ATP) is where most of the
energy exists
- Most of it is created in the cell's mitochondria.
 Microfilament (Fibers)
- Microscopic tubes
- made of contractile protein
- Locomotion
 Cytoskeleton
- Formed by:
a. Microtubules
b. Microfilaments
c. ntermediate filaments
- forms a supportive framework, assists in
organelles movement, and provides a
transport system within the cell.
 Centrioles
- A pair of cylindrical cytoplasmic organelles
located in a space near the nucleus called
centrosome
- Assist in cell division by forming Mitotic
Spindle System
* Note that mitotic spindle is involved
with chromosome movement during
mitosis
 Cilia
- Minute cytoplasmic extensions from the cell
which are involved in the transport of
materials along the cell surface
- hair like
- whiplike structures of cells
- (e.g. mucus movement in the trachea;
movement of the ova in the fallopian tube.)
 Flagellum
- Cellular appendage which protrudes from the
cell and allows its propulsion
- tail of sperm cell
- (e.g. Spermatozoa tail is made of flagellum)
 Secretory Vesicles
- Membrane bound cytoplasmic chambers
containing products of secretion such as
protein.
 Microtubules (Spine)
- made up of protein molecules
 Cytoplasmic Inclusions
- There is a variety of cellular inclusions. -
Examples are:
a. Lipid droplets - storage for energy
b. Glycogen - principal storage form of
carbohydrates
c. Zymogen granules - secretory products
rich in inactive enzyme
 d. Melanin pigment - most abundant skin
pigment
e. Hemosiderin - yellowish brown pigment
resulting from degradation of hemoglobin
 Centrosome
- Centrosome contains centrioles. Centrioles
control polarisation of spindle fibres. Centriole
is closely related to spindle formation during
cell division (Mitosis).
 Plasmosin
- is constant constituent of cytoplasm. They
form Tonofibrils in epithelial cells, myofibrils in
muscles and neurofibrils in nerves.
- They consist of long protein molecules rich in
deoxy -ribonucleoprotein.
 Vacuoles
- spherical empty sacs
- storage food
- They are also cytoplasmic organelles. They are
found covered by fat on staining with dilute
neutral red solution.
- membranous sacs larger than vesicles and
usually store substances
- Example: toxic substances used in plant
defense
- Central vacuole – found in plants, contains
watery sap and maintains turgor pressure
 Nasal bodies
- They are found in nerve cells.
 Secretory granules
- They store secretory products of cell and are
found in- Golgi apparatus and E.R
C.THE NUCLEUS (BRAIN)
- rounded darkly stained object inside the cell
- key structure of living cell
- control center/ controls all the processes of
organelles
- controls protein synthesis (production of
protein)
- The nucleus is the container of DNA in
eukaryotic cells
- Site where the genetic material is stored
- It consists of three components:
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE OR NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
- Contains opening called nucleopores which are
potential passageway for exchange of
substances (e.g.) Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
(mRNA)
2. CHROMATIN
- Complex substance made up fibrous strands
containing DNA and proteins. DNA controls:
a.) Cell's Heredity
b.) Protein Structure
c.) Other nonmetabolic activity
3. NUCLEOLUS
- Dense nonmembranous mass where RNA is
synthesized; location for the components
found in ribosomes.
* Note: Red Blood Cells (RBC) in circulation
don't have a nucleus; therefore, they are
unable to divide and they die after 4 months in
circulation
ADDITIONAL:
A. CHROMOSOMES
- Chromosomes are present as individual bodies
in interphase as well as in mitosis.
Predominant component in chromosome is
DNA.
- Genes are located in chromosome. They are
discrete units of transmission of hereditary
characters.
B. CHLOROPLASTS
- type of plastid, an organelle bounded by a
double membrane with a series of internal
membranes separated by a ground substance
- site of photosynthesis
- Other plastids are:
 Chromoplast- contain variously colored NOTE: Some information were gathered online and others
pigments like red, blue, violet, yellow etc. were from PDFs downloaded years ago.
 Leukoplast- colorless plastid; storage depot of
starch

C. PRESENCE OF CAPSULE IN BACTERIA = harmful

D. KIDNEY - steriles; does not have bacteria
E. URINE - is sterile since it came from kidney

REFERENCE:

Chapter 1, Introduction to Human Anatomy/physiology (PDF)

Introduction to Human Anatomy. The Medical Lab Technician

(PDF)

Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John P. Fisher,

Adapted from Textbook of Medical Physiology, 11th Ed.
Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall, Chapter 1

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