Week 1 and 2

Objectives:
At the end of the lecture, the students will be able to;
1. Identify the different classification, functions, sources and health effects of
Macronutrients.
2. Identify the different classification, functions, sources and health effects of
Micronutrients.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
WHAT IS NUTRITION?

NUTRITION – is the study of food and how the body makes use of it.
- It refers to the processes by which a living organism ingest, digest, absorbs,
transports, uses and excretes nutrients (food and other nourishing material)
NUTRIENTS - are chemical substances found in food that nourishes the body by providing heat
and energy, to build and repair body tissues, and to regulate body processes.
For nutrition to be adequate, a person must receive certain ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS –
CARBOHYDRATES, FATS, PROTEINS, VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND WATER, which are necessary for
proper growth, and functioning; however, the body can’t produce them on its own in adequate
quantities, so they must be obtained through food. In addition, the digestive system must function
properly to make use of these nutrient.
Nutrients can be used by the body for its immediate needs, or they can be stored for later
use. The body breaks down nutrients into simpler compounds for absorption in the stomach and
intestines in two ways:

 Mechanical breakdown, which begins in the GI tract with chewing,

 Chemical breakdown, which starts with salivary enzymes in the mouth and continues
with acid and enzyme action through the rest of the GI tract.
METABOLISM – is the chemical reaction involved in maintaining the living state of cells and
organisms. It is the combination of processes by which energy is extracted from certain nutrients
(carbohydrates, proteins and fats). Metabolism is divided into two categories:

 CATABOLISM – the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy

 ANABOLISM - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells.
ENERGY – is the force or power that enables the body to do its work. In nutrition energy pertains
to the chemical energy locked in foodstuffs brought about by metabolism.
CALORIE – the unit of energy commonly used in human nutrition is the kilogram calorie (kcal) or
simply calorie. It is the unit of measurement for energy that the body gets from food.
- They are not eaten. The are the by-products of carbohydrate, protein and fat that are
oxidized in the body. One kilocalorie is the amount of energy required to raised the
temperature of one kilogram of water by 1 degree centigrade.
 Fuel factor of carbohydrate = 4 calories per gram
 Fuel factor of protein = 4 calories per gram
  Fuel factor of fat = 9 calories per gram
The total calorie content (total energy) available from food can be measured by a
device called a BOMB CALORIMETER.

DIGESTION – is defined as the process of breaking down food into substances like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats and vitamins that aid the body into different functions.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – is made up of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or digestive tract, liver,
pancreas, and gallbladder.
GI TRACT – is a chain of hollow organs connected in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the
anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach small
intestine, large intestine, and anus. The liver, pancreas and gallbladder are the solid organs of the
digestive system.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MOUTH – digestion begins in the mouth where food is Brocken down to pieces by chewing. Food
then mixes with the saliva and Brocken down into a form that the body can absorb and use.
THROAT – also known as the pharynx which transfers food from the mouth to the esophagus and
warms, moistens and filters air before food is moved into the trachea.
ESOPHAGUS – is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. Through a series of
contractions known as peristalsis food propels downward to the stomach. A “zone of high
pressure” known as the lower esophageal sphincter prevents food from passing backward into
esophagus.
STOMACH – is a sac-like organ with tough muscular walls that holds, mixes and grinds food. The
stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that carry on the process on the process of
breaching down food. Food leaves the stomach in liquid or paste consistency and moves into the
small intestine.
SMALL INTESTINE – is a long loosely coiled tube in the abdomen, which when spread out would be
more than 20 feet long. It is made up of three parts – the duodenum, jejunum, and ilium. The
duodenum continuous the process of breaking down the food, while the jejunum and ilium are
responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
The stomach and the small intestine are supported by three organs in digesting food:
1. PANCREAS – secretes digestive enzymes (protease, lipase and amylase) into the small
intestine which breakdown carbohydrate, protein and fat from food.
2. LIVER – produces and secretes bile which helps in the digestion and absorption of fat and
fat-soluble vitamins. The liver also cleanses and purifies the blood that comes from the
small intestine which contains nutrients absorbed from food. It metabolizes carbohydrates,
proteins and fats, stores nutrients, detoxifies drugs and waste products.
3. GALLBLADDER – is a pear-shape reservoir located just under the liver. BILE made in the
liver travels into the gallbladder through a cystic duct for storage. During meals, the
gallbladder contracts and sends bile to the small intestine. After the nutrient have been
absorbed and the leftover liquid has passed into the small intestine, waste are passed to
the large intestine or colon.

CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS
MACRONUTRIENTS
CARBOHYDRATES – are organic compound (saccharides – starches and sugars) of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen that are stored in muscled and in the liver, and can be converted quickly
when the body needs energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
A. MONOSACCHARIDES or simple sugar – are the simplest form of carbohydrate. They are
sweet and since they require no digestion, they can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the small intestine. They include the following:
1. GLUCOSE (Dextrose) or blood sugar is the principal form in which carbohydrates is
used in the body, the primary fuel for cells. Found naturally preformed in few foods but
mainly created in the body from starch digestion.
Liver stores 1/3 of the body’s total glycogen and liberates glucose as needed.
Muscle cells can also store glucose as glycogen but they amass most of their supply
using it for themselves during exercise.
Only glucose can provide energy for the brain, other nerve cells and developing red
blood cells.
When a person does not reload used up glycogen stores, the body proteins are
dismantled allowing glucose to fuel these special cells (Gluconeogenesis – process in
which protein is converted into glucose). Insufficient supply of carbohydrates combined
with accelerated breakdown of fat can budge the body’s energy metabolism in an
unsafe direction. with less available carbohydrates for energy, more fats maybe broken
down, but not all the way to energy instead, fat fragments combine with each other
and form KETONE bodies. Muscle and other tissues can use ketone bodies for energy
BUT when their production exceeds their use, they can mount up and cause KETOSIS –
a state that disturbs the bodies normal-acid balance.
If more carbohydrates are consumed that what is needed, the body must find a way to
store excess glucose, the LIVER breaks it into smaller molecules, putting them together
to form a fat. The fat travels then to the fatty tissues of the body for storage. The fat
cells can store limitless quantities of fat, unlike the liver which can store only half a
day’s worth of glycogen.
2. FRUCTOSE (Levulose) – is the sweetest of simple sugar.
Found in honey, most fruits, and some vegetables.
It is converted into glucose in the body.
3. GALACTOSE – is not found free in foods and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is
produced from LACTOSE (milk sugar) by digestion and is converted into glucose in the
body.
Some enfants are born with inability to metabolize galactose – a condition called
GALACTOSEMIA.

B. DISACCHARIDES or Double-sugars – consist of two monosaccharides (one of which is

glucose) minus a water molecule. These simple carbohydrates must first be digested into
their component monosaccharide before being absorbed.
TYPES:
1. SUCROSE (ordinary table sugars -granulated, powdered or brown) – is
processed from cane and beet sugar. Found in fruits, vegetables, syrups and
 sweet food production and is converted into a glucose and galactose upon
digestion.
2. LACTOSE (milk sugar) – non-sweet sugar found in milk and milk products except
cheese, that aids calcium absorption and helps manufacture bacteria that are
necessary for vitamin K production in the intestine.
3. MALTOSE – is not found free in foods, sugar is found in germinating grains
(cereals), malt products, beer, and in certain infant milk formula.

C. POLYSACCHARIDES – are compose of many molecules of simple sugar, commonly known

as COMPLEX SUGAR. They include the following:
TYPES:
1. STARCH – is the most significant polysaccharide in human nutrition. Major
sources include cereal grains, potatoes, and other root vegetables and
legumes.
Converted into glucose upon digestion.
Require longer time to digest, supplies energy over a longer period of time.
2. DEXTRINS – are not found in food. They are formed as intermediate
products in the breakdown of starch.
3. CELLULOSE – forms the framework of plants found in unrefined grains,
vegetables and fruits. Main sources are stems and leaves of vegetables, seed
and grain coverings, skins and hulls.
They are non-digestible because digestive enzymes are unable to break
them down.
They lower the blood glucose levels of people with diabetes mellitus.
CLASSIFICATION:
1. SOLUBLE – found in fruits, legumes, barley, oats. Delays GI transit
and glucose absorption and lowers blood cholesterol.
2. INSOLUBLE – found in wheat brans, corn brans, whole grains, breads,
cereals and vegetables which accelerates GI transit, increase fecal
weight, slow down starch hydrolysis and delays glucose absorption.

4. PECTINS -are non-digestible, colloidal polysaccharides having a gel quality.

Sources mostly from fruits and are often use as base for jellies. also used to
treat diarrhea as they absorb toxins and bacteria in the intestine.
They bind cholesterol, reducing the amount the blood can absorbed.

5. GLYCOGEN (animal starch) – are formed from glucose and stored in the liver
and muscle tissues. Food sources mainly from meat and seafoods. The
hormones glucagon helps the liver convert glycogen into glucose every time
the body needs energy.
FUCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. MAJOR SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR THE BODY
Carbohydrate must be supplied regularly and at frequent interval to support the
body’s energy need.
They are less energy-dense and more digestible compared to fat.
Each gram of carbohydrates yield approximately 4 kcal regardless of source.
 Sole energy source foe brain and nerve tissues, however, in prolonged famine and
starvation, these tissues use fats as energy source.

2. PROTEIN-SPARING EFFECT
Carbohydrates spare protein from being converted to glucose for energy so that
protein can be used for building and repairing body tissues regulating body process.

3. NECESSARY FOR NORMAL FAT METABOLISM

Carbohydrates prevents the incomplete oxidation of fat. If inadequate energy is
supplied by carbohydrate sources, fat would be catabolized excessively, resulting in
the accumulation of ketone bodies and the occurring of acidosis. Excretion of
ketone bodies with sodium may lead to dehydration and sodium imbalance.

4. MODULATE THE PRODUCTION OF HORMONES

Carbohydrates modulates the production of insulin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide
(GIP) and other gastro-intestinal hormones, as well as the synthesis lipoprotein and
cholesterol.

5. REGULATE GASTRO-INTESTINAL PERISTALSIS

Slowly released carbohydrates and dietary fibers provide bulk and act as
“sweepers” in the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT), thus resulting in the modulation of
peristalsis and the prevention of constipation.

6. DETOXIFYING EFFECT
Glucuronic Acid (a type of sugar/glucose that help remove harmful substance in the
body) which is a metabolite of glucose combines with chemical and bacterial toxins,
as well as normal metabolites and are excreted.

7. PRECURSOR OF IMPORTAND COMPOUNDS

Nucleic Acid, connective tissue matrix and galactorides of nerve tissues are derived
from carbohydrates.
After the body’s energy demands are met, excess glucose can be converted to
glycogen and used to produce nonessential amino acids and other compounds, or
converted to fat and stored.

SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES

 GRAINS – BREAD, CEREAL, RICE AND PASTA GROUP

Provide complex carbohydrate and some protein.
Some grain selections also contain fat
Fiber content is low in refined products. Moderate in whole grains, highest in bran
products.
Represents the foundation of a healthy diet.
 VEGETABLE GROUP
Starchy, corn, potatoes and legumes, lima beans
 FRUIT GROUP
Contains mostly sugar, dried fruits have higher sugar content than fresh fruits
because the removal of water increases concentration.
 MILK, YOGURT, CHEESE AND DAIRY GROUP
 Contains sugar lactose, such dairy products as chocolate milk, strawberry yogurt
and ice cream are flavored or have added sugars which increases the amount of
carbohydrates per serving.
Cheese, however, is a selection from dairy group that low in lactose therefore low
in carbohydrates.
 MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, DRY BEANS, EGGS, AND NUTS GROUP
Mostly protein, however, dried beans which are a plant source of protein are also
high in carbohydrates such as starch. Nuts have 4-8 grams of carbohydrates per 1
oz. serving.
 SUGARS AND SWEETS
Important sources of carbohydrates next to breads and cereals. Cane and beet
sugars, honey, maple syrup, jellies, jams and candies.

PROTEIN
The first substance recognized as vital part of a living tissue. It contains nitrogen aside from
the basic carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are organic compound that upon digestion yields
AMINO ACIDS. Required for normal growth and development. Stored in muscles, bones, blood,
skin, cartilage and lymph.
AMINO ACIDS – are the structural units of protein required by the body. Divided into two
classification:

 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (indispensable) – cannot be synthesized by the body and

must be included in the diet.
1. Histidine
2. Isoleucine
3. Leucine
4. Lysine
5. Methionine
6. Phenylalanine
7. Threonine
8. Tryptophan
9. Valine
 NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (dispensable) can be manufactured by the body,
therefore are not necessary for consideration in the diet.
1. Alanine
2. arginine
3. Aspartic acid
4. Cystine
5. Glutamic acid
6. Glycine
7. Hydroxyproline
8. Proline
9. Serine
10. Tyrosine
COMPLETE PROTEINS – are those that contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient quantity
and ratio to supply the body’s need. These proteins are of animal origin – meat, milk, cheese and
eggs.
INCOMPLETE PROTEINS – are those deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids. They are
of plant origins – grains, legumes, seeds, and nuts.

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN
1. Primary function is for the growth, repair and maintenance of body structures and tissue.
The body’s cells are always making proteins to replace those that are broken down from
normal wear.
2. Involved in the manufacture of hormones, such as insulin and epinephrine.
3. Act as enzyme that help bring about certain chemical reactions, such as digestion or
protein synthesis.
4. Plasma proteins (albumin) aid in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance by attracting
water and causing changes in osmotic pressure
5. Amino acids contain an acid and bases in the body, thereby maintaining a normal pH.
6. Help transport other substances through blood. For example, hemoglobin transports
oxygen, and lipoproteins transport lipids.
7. Function within the immune system by helping create lymphocytes and antibodies that
protect the body from infection and disease.
8. A component of numerous body compounds, including thrombin, which help blood clot.
9. Used as a source of energy (providing 4 cal/g) when intake of carbohydrates and fats is
inadequate.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF PROTEIN

1. HEAT DISEASE – foods rich in animal protein tend to be rich in saturated fats.
2. CANCER – studies suggests a relationship between a high intake of animal protein and
some types of cancer (cancer of the prostate glands, pancreas, kidneys, breast and colon)
3. OSTEOPOROSIS – calcium excretion rises as protein intake increase.
4. WEIGHT CONTROL – protein rich food is also rich in fat which can lead to obesity with
associated health risk.
5. KIDNEY DISEASE – a high protein diet increases the work of the kidneys

PROTEIN -ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM) a condition resulting from insufficiency of protein or

energy or both in the diet.
TWO FORMS OF PEM
1. MARASMUS – severe deprivation of food over a long period of time characterized by
insufficiency of protein and energy intake.
2. KWASHIORKOR – a disease occurring primarily in young children that reflects an abrupt
and recent deprivation of food which develops rapidly as a consequence of protein
deficiency or an illness like measles. The child generally suffers from infections and
exhibits edema, poor growth, weakness and an increase susceptibility to further.
illness.

FATS OR LIPIDS
FATS – are organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Triglycerides or fats and oils are fatty acid esters of glycerol, they belong to class of fats and fat
related compound called lipids.
Constitutes 34% of energy in human body. Includes substances such as fats, oil, waxes, and related
compounds that are greasy to touch and insoluble in water. Provides more concentrated souce of
energy compared to carbohydrates.
Some fat deposits are not used and are considered STRUCTURAL FATS - they hold the body organs
and nerves in position and protect them against shock and injury.

CLASSIFICATION OF FATS
A. SIMPLE LIPIDS (neutral fats) – chemical name of these basic fats is TRIGLYCERIDES. This
name indicates their chemical structure, a glycerol base with three fatty acids attached.
GLYCEROL is derived from a water-soluble form of carbohydrates.
B. COMPOUND LIPIDS – are various combination of fats with other components.
Three types that are important in nutrition:
1. Phospholipids – are compounds of fatty acids, phosphoric acids and
nitrogenous bases.
2. Glycolipids – are compounds of fatty acids combined with carbohydrates
and nitrogen bases.
3. Lipoprotein – are lipids combined with proteins. They contain cholesterol,
neutral fats, and fatty acids.
C. DERIVED LIPIDS – are fat substances produced from fat compounds during digestive
breakdown.
TYPES:
1. FATTY ACIDS – are key refined fuel forms of fat that the cell burn for energy.
Sources:
a. Saturated Fats – are those into which no hydrogen can be added.
Example: (animal fats) beef, lamb/lamb fat, pork, ham, red meat, bacon
Seafood, dairy, whole milk, cheese
salad dressing, mayonnaise, butter, margarine, lard,
hydrogenated shortenings, coconut oil, poultry, egg/egg
yolk, chocolates, cakes, cookies, pies, puddings.
b. Monounsaturated Fatty acids – are those which two of the carbon
atoms are joined by double bond. Oleic acid is the most abundant
monounsaturated fatty acid (ex. Olive oil and peanut oil).
c. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids – are those which two or more double
bonds are present.
Example (Plant oil) vegetable oil, peanut, soybean, cauliflower, corn,
cotton, olives/olive oil.
d. Essential Fatty acids – are not manufactured in the body and must be
supplied in the diet.
Linoleic acid – is the primary member of the omega-6 family found
in vegetable oils like corn, safflower, soybean, and cotton seed, and
poultry fats
Linolenic acids – is the primary member of the omega-3 family. It is
found in oils like flaxseed, canola, walnut, wheatgerm and soy bean.
 2. GLYCEROL – is a water-soluble component of triglycerides and is inconvertible
with carbohydrates. It comes out 10% of the fat. After it becomes broken off in
digestion, it becomes available for the formation of glucose in the diet.
3. STEROIDS – are a class of fat-related substances that contain sterols. A main
member of this group is CHOLESTEROL – it is a complex fat-like compound
found practically in all body tissues, specially in the brain and nerve tissues, bile,
blood, and the liver where most cholesterol is synthesized.
FOODS RICH IN CHOLESTEROL:
Egg yolk, organ meats, shell fish, and daily fats
Other animal fat products including butter, cream, whole milk cheese, ice
cream, and meat contain small amounts.
TRANS-FAT (Trans-fatty acids) – are basically artificial fats. A small amount of trans-fat occurs
naturally in meat and dairy products. Example: crackers, donuts, French fries, cookies (also rich in
saturated fats), vegetable shortening, hard margarine, pastries (high in trans-fat).

FUNCTIONS OF FATS
1. Normally, about 95% of the fat in the food is digested and absorbed, and important
sources of calories (9 cal/gm). It is quite normal for the body to have deposits of fat
(adipose tissue) that serve as continuing supply of energy each and every hour. In fact, if
the body had no reserves of fat, it would need food much more frequently to provide a
continuous supply of energy.
2. Fat is said to be protein-sparing because its availability reduces the need to burn protein
for energy.
3. Fat is essential to maintain the constant body temperature by providing effective
insulation underneath the skin.
4. Fat cushions vital organs such as kidney against injury.
5. Fat facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
6. Fat provides satiety and delays the onset of hunger.
7. Fat contributes flavor and palatability to the diet.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF FATS/LIPIDS

1. HEART DISEASE -elevated blood cholesterol is a major risk factor for cardiovascular
diseases.
2. RISKS FOR SATURATED FATS – lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids raise blood cholesterol
levels. Stearic acid does not.
3. BENEFITS FROM MONOUNSATURATED FATS – olive oil lower risks of heart disease.
4. BENEFITS FROM OMEGA-3 POLYUNSATURATED FATS – lowers blood cholesterol and
prevent heart disease. Fish eaten once a week can lower blood cholesterol and the risk of
heart attack and stroke.
5. CANCER – fat does not instigate cancer development but can promote it once it has arisen.
6. OBESITY – high-fat diets tend to store body fat ably.

(NOTE: for the Cholesterol content of food pls refer to page 35 and 36 of the text book)
MICRONUTIENTS
VITAMINS – comes from the Latin word “VITA” meaning life and the suffix AMINE which is a
nitrogen compound.
- Are organic compound (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and occasionally nitrogen) and
other elements that are need in small quantities(micronutrient) for normal metabolism,
growth and development.
- They do not give energy to the body; they merely help convert food into energy
through many biochemical reactions. Taking extra vitamins cannot increase one’s
physical capacity. however, shortage of vitamins may lead to fatigue. A long-term
vitamin deficiency even results in the deterioration of health.
- Human body can not make its own vitamins, except vitamin D and NIACIN which are
produced in the body.
- Don’t have calorie value. However, may contain few calories in their sugar coating
(amount is negligible).
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH VITAMINS (refer to definition on page 56 of textbook)
1. PRECURSORS or Provitamins
2. PREFORMED VITAMINS
3. AVITAMINOSIS
4. HYPERVITAMINOSIS
5. VITAMIN MALNUTRITION
6. ANTIVITAMINS or Vitamin Antagonist

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
1. FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS (Vitamins A, D, E, K) – are generally have precursors or
provitamins. Because they can be stored in the body, deficiencies are slow to develop.
They are not absolutely needed daily from food sources. They are stable, especially in
ordinary cooking methods.
2. WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS (Vitamin C and the B vitamins) – they must be supplied every
day in the diet. They do not have precursors. They are not stored in significantly in the
body and any excess is excreted in the urine. Deficiency symptoms develop relatively fast.
They are most likely to be destroyed in ordinary cooking.

GUIDE TO VITAMINS
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS:
VITAMIN B1 (thiamine)
Major Functions– appetite stimulant, blood building, carbohydrate metabolism,
circulation, digestion, growth, learning
Food Sources -meat, fish, poultry, pork, molasses, brewer’s yeast, brown rice, nuts, wheat,
Germ, whole and enriched grains
 S/S of deficiencies – beriberi, (fatigue, muscle weakness, confusion, edema, enlarge heart,
Heart failure)
VITAMIN B2 (riboflavin)
Major functions – antibody and red blood cell (RBC) formation; energy metabolism, cell
respiration, epithelial, eye, and mucosal tissue maintenance
Food Sources – meat, fish, poultry, molasses, brewer’s yeast, eggs, fruits, green leafy
vegetables, nuts, whole grains
S/S of deficiencies – Ariboflavinosis (dermatitis, glossitis, photo phobia)

VITAMIN B3 (niacin)
Major functions – circulation, cholesterol level reduction, growth, hydrochloric acid
production, metabolism (carbohydrate, protein, fat), sex hormone production
Food Sources – eggs, lean meat, milk products, organ meat, peanuts, poultry, seafood,
whole grains
S/S of deficiencies – pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, death)
S/S of Toxicities – flushing, gastric ulcers, low blood pressure, nausea, vomiting, liver
damage

VITAMIN B6 (pyridoxine)
Major Functions – antibody formation, digestion, deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic
acid synthesis, fat and protein utilization, amino acid metabolism, hemoglobin production
Food Sources -meat, poultry, bananas, molasses, brewer’s yeast, desiccated liver, fish,
green leafy vegetables, peanuts, raisins, walnuts, wheat germ, whole grains
S/S of deficiencies – dermatitis, glossitis, seizures, anemia
S/S of toxicities -depression, irritability, headaches, fatigue

VITAMIN B12 (cobalamin)

Major Functions -blood cell formation, cellular and nutrient metabolism, iron absorption,
tissue, growth, nerve cell maintenance
Food Sources -beef, eggs, fish, milk products, organ meat, pork
S/S of deficiencies – indigestion, diarrhea or constipation, weight loss, macrocytic anemia,
paresthesia of hands and feet
VITAMIN C (ascorbic acid)
Major Functions -collagen production, digestion, fine bone and tooth formation, iodine
conservation, healing, RBC formation, infection resistance
Food Sources – fresh fruits and vegetables
 S/S of deficiencies – scurvy (bleeding gums, delayed wound healing, hemorrhaging,
softening of the bones, easy fractures)
S/S of toxicities -diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fatigue, hot flushes, insomnia
BIOTIN
Major Functions -cell growth, fatty acid production, metabolism, vitamin B utilization, skin,
hair, nerve and bone marrow maintenance
Food Sources – egg yolks, organ meats, legumes, whole grains, yeast, milk, and seafood
S/S of deficiencies – anorexia, fatigue, depression, dry skin, heart abnormalities
FOLATE
Major Functions – cell growth and reproduction, hydrochloric acid reproduction, liver f
unction, nucleic acid formation, protein metabolism, RBC formation
Food Sources – citrus fruits, egg, green leafy vegetables, milk products, organ meat,
seafood, whole grains
S/S of deficiencies – diarrhea, macrocytic anemia, confusion, depression, fatigue
S/S of toxicities – masks vitamin B12 deficiency
PANTOTHENIC ACID
Major Functions – antibody formation, cortisone production, growth stimulation, stress
tolerance, vitamin utilization, conversion of carbohydrates, fats, and protein
Food Sources – eggs, legumes, mushrooms, organ meats, salmon, wheat germ, whole
grains, fresh vegetables, yeast
S/S of deficiencies – general failure of all body system
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A (retinol)
Major Functions – body tissue repair and maintenance, infection resistance, bone growth,
nervous system development, cell membrane metabolism and structure
Food Sources – fish, green and yellow fruits and vegetables, milk products
S/S of deficiencies – night blindness, bone growth cessation, dry skin, decrease saliva,
diarrhea
S/S of toxicities – headache, vomiting, double vision, hair loss, liver damage
VITAMIN D (calciferol)
Major Functions – calcium and phosphorus metabolism (bone formation), myocardial
function, nervous system maintenance, normal blood clotting
Food Sources – bonemeal, egg yolks, organ meat, butter, cod liver, fatty fish
S/S of deficiencies – rickets (retarded bone growth, bone malformation, decrease serum
calcium, abdominal protrusion); osteomalacia (softening of bones, decrease serum
calcium, muscle twitching)
 S/S of toxicities – kidney stones, kidney damage, muscle and bone weakness, excessive
bleeding, headache, excessive thirst
VITAMIN E (tocopherol)
Major Functions – aging retardation, anticlotting factor, diuresis, fertility, lung protection
(antipollution), male potency, muscle and nerve cell membrane maintenance, myocardial
perfusion, serum cholesterol reduction
Food Sources – butter, dark green vegetables, eggs, fruits, nuts, organ meat, vegetable oils,
wheat germ
S/S of deficiencies – red blood cell hemolysis, edema, skin lesions
VITAMIN K (menadione)
Major Functions – liver synthesis of prothrombin and other blood clotting factors
Food Sources – green leafy vegetables, safflower oil, yogurt, liver, molasses
S/S of deficiencies – hemorrhaging

MINERALS – pertains to the elements in their simple organic form. They play a
role in promoting growth and maintaining health (providing structure to body
tissues, regulating body processes)
Digested in the GI tract by enzymes through the process of HYDROLYSIS (consist of a
compound uniting with water and then splitting into simpler compound), then
absorbed into the small intestine and transported to the liver through the portal
vein system.
CLASSIFICATION:
1. Major Minerals (macro minerals):
calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulfur
2. Trace Minerals (microminerals):
Chromium, cobalt, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, selenium, and zinc

GUIDE TO MINERALS
1. MAJOR MINERALS:
CALCIUM
 Major Function – blood clotting, bone and tooth formation, cardiac
rhythm maintenance, cell membrane permeability, muscle growth and
contraction, nerve impulse transmission
Food Sources – bonemeal, cheese, milk, molasses, yogurt, whole
grains, nuts, legumes, leafy vegetables
S/S of deficiencies – arm and leg numbness, brittle fingernails, heart
palpitations, insomnia, muscle cramps, osteoporosis
S/S of toxicities – renal calculi, impaired absorption of iron
CHLORIDE
Major Function – fluid, electrolyte, acid-base, and osmotic pressure
balance
Food Sources – fruits, vegetables, table salt
S/S of deficiencies – disturbance in acid-base balance
MAGNESIUM
Major Function – acid-base balance, metabolism, protein synthesis,
muscle relaxation, cellular respiration, nerve impulse transmission
Food Sources – green leafy vegetables, nuts, seafood, cocoa, whole
grain
S/S of deficiencies – confusion, disorientation, nervousness, irritability,
rapid pulse, tremors, muscle control loss, neuromuscular disfunction
S/S of toxicities – cardiac rhythm disturbance, hypotension, respiratory
failure
PHOSPHORUS
Major Functions – bone and tooth formation, cell growth and repair
Food Sources – eggs, fish, grains, meat, poultry, yellow cheese, meat,
meat products
S/S of deficiencies – appetite loss, fatigue, irregular breathing, nervous
disorders, muscle weakness
POTASSIUM
Major Functions – muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission,
rapid growth, fluid distribution and osmotic pressure balance, acid-base
balance
Food Sources – seafood, bananas, peaches, peanuts, raisins
 S/S of deficiencies – muscular weakness, paralysis, anorexia, confusion,
slow irregular heartbeat, weak reflexes
S/S of toxicities – cardiac disturbances, paralysis
SODIUM
Major Functions – cellular fluid level maintenance, muscle contraction,
acid-base balance, cell permeability, muscle function, nerve impulse
transmission
Food Sources – seafood, cheese, milk, salt
S/S of deficiencies – appetite loss, intestinal gas, muscular atrophy,
vomiting, weight loss
S/S of toxicities – edema, elevated blood pressure
SULFUR
Major Functions – collagen synthesis, vitamin B formation, enzyme and
energy metabolism, blood clotting
Food Sources – milk, meats, legumes, eggs
S/S of deficiencies – none
2. TRACE MINERALS
CHROMIUM
Major Functions – carbohydrate and protein metabolism, serum
glucose level maintenance
Food Sources – clams, meat, cheese, corn oil, whose grains
S/S of deficiencies – glucose intolerance (in diabetic patients)
COBALT
Major Functions – vitamin B formation
Food Sources – beef, eggs, fish, milk products, organ meats, pork
S/S o deficiencies – indigestion, diarrhea or constipation, weight loss,
fatigue, poor memory
COPPER
Major Functions – bone formation, hair and skin color, healing
processes, hemoglobin and RBC formation, , mental processes, iron
metabolism
Food sources – organ meat, raisins, seafoods, nuts, molasses
S/S of deficiencies – general weakness, impaired respiration, skin sores,
bone disease
S/S of toxicities – vomiting, diarrhea
FLOURIDE
Major Functions – bone and tooth formation
 Food Sources – drinking water
S/S of deficiencies – dental carries
S/s of toxicities – mottling and pitting of permanent teeth, increase
bone density and calcification
IODINE
Major Functions – energy production, metabolism, physical and mental
development
Food Sources – kelp, salt (iodized), seafood
S/S of deficiencies – cold hands and feet, dry hair, irritability,
nervousness, obesity, simple goiter
S/S of toxicities – enlarge thyroid gland
IRON
Major Functions – growth (in children), hemoglobin production, stress
and disease resistance, cellular respiration, oxygen transport
Food Sources – eggs, organ meats, poultry, wheat germ, liver potatoes,
enrich breads and cereals, green leafy vegetables
S/S of deficiencies – brittle nails, constipation, respiratory problems,
tongue soreness or inflammation, anemia, pallor, weakness, cold
sensitivity, fatigue
S/S of toxicities – abdominal cramps and pains, nausea, vomiting,
hemosiderosis, hemochromatosis
MANGANESE
Major Functions – enzyme activation, fat and carbohydrate
metabolism, reproduction and growth, sex hormones production,
vitamin B1 metabolism, vitamin E utilization
Food Sources – bananas, egg yolks, green leafy vegetables. Liver,
soybean, nuts, whole grains, coffee, tea
S/S of deficiencies – ataxia, dizziness, hearing disturbance or loss
S/S of toxicities – severe neuromuscular disturbances
MOLYBDENUM
Major Functions – body metabolism
Food Sources – whole grains, legumes, organ meats
S/S of deficiencies - none
S/S of toxicities – headache, dizziness, heartburn, weakness, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea
SELENIUM
Major Functions – immune mechanisms, mitochondrial adenosine
triphosphate synthesis, cellular protection, fat metabolism
Food Sources – seafoods, meat, liver, kidneys
S/S of deficiencies – none
S/S of toxicities – nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, hair and nail
changes, nerve damage, fatigue
 ZINC
Major Functions – burn and wound healing, carbohydrate digestion,
metabolism, prostate gland function, reproductive organ growth and
development
Food Sources – liver, mushroom, seafoods, soybeans, spinach, meat
S/S of deficiencies – delayed sexual maturity, fatigue, smell and taste
loss, poor appetite, prolonged wound healing, slowed growth, skin
disorder
S/S of toxicities – anemia, impaired calcium absorption, fever, muscle
pain, dizziness, reproductive failure
WATER – constitute about 60% to 70% of the total body weight so that a
deprivation of water by as much as 10% will already result in illness and a 20% loss
of water may cause death.
- To maintain fluid balance, a person’s fluid intake should equal fluid output.
- An adult loses about 1,450 to 2,800ml of water daily from sensible and
insensible loses. Roughly speaking, an adult needs 1ml to 1.5ml of water
per calorie consumed. So, someone who consumes 2000 calories daily
needs a total fluid intake of 2000 to 3000ml. of this, at least 60% should
consumed as water, with the remainder obtained from foods and
metabolism.