C E L L S- are the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

Cell Structures: The Basics

1. Plasma Membrane—A Cell's Protective Coat
2. Cytoskeleton—A Cell's Support
It acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps
during endocytosis (the uptake of external materials by a cell); and moves parts of the cell in
processes of growth and motility. There are a great number of proteins associated with the
cytoskeleton, each controlling a cell’s structure by directing, bundling, and aligning
filaments.
3. Cytoplasm—A Cell's Inner Space
Inside the cell there is a large fluid-filled space called the cytoplasm, sometimes called
the cytosol. The cytosol contains dissolved nutrients, helps break down waste products, and
moves material around the cell. The nucleus often flows with the cytoplasm changing its
shape as it moves. The cytoplasm also contains many salts and is an excellent conductor of
electricity, creating the perfect environment for the mechanics of the cell. The function of the
cytoplasm, and the organelles which reside in it, are critical for a cell's survival.
4. Genetic Material
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
* DNA is a storage device, a biological flash drive that allows the blueprint of life to be
passed between generations. RNA functions as the reader that decodes this flash drive. 

5. Organelles- “little organs”

5.1 Nucleus— Cell's Center
The nucleus is the most noticeable organelle found in a cell. It houses the cell's
chromosomes and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis
occurs.
5.2 Ribosome—Protein Production Machine
5.3 Mitochondria--The Power Generator
5.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi Apparatus - Macromolecule Managers
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport network for molecules
targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules
that will float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER and the
smooth ER. The rough ER is labeled as such because it has ribosomes adhering to its
outer surface, whereas the smooth ER does not. The smooth ER serves as the
recipient for those proteins synthesized in the rough ER. Proteins to be exported are
passed to the Golgi apparatus, sometimes called a Golgi body or Golgi complex, for
further processing, packaging, and transport to a variety of other cellular locations.
5.5 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes—The Cellular Digestive System
They are often referred to as the garbage disposal system of a cell. Both
organelles are somewhat spherical, bound by a single membrane, and rich in
digestive enzymes, naturally occurring proteins that speed up biochemical processes.

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth
It is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts here as soon as you
take the first bite of a meal. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily
digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form
your body can absorb and use.
Throat
Also called the pharynx, the throat is the next destination for food you've eaten. From
here, food travels to the esophagus or swallowing tube.
Esophagus
It is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. By means of a
series of contractions, called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the stomach. Just
before the connection to the stomach there is a "zone of high pressure," called the lower
esophageal sphincter; this is a "valve" meant to keep food from passing backwards into the
esophagus.

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

Stomach
The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding
the food, it's also a mixer and grinder. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes
that continue the process of breaking down the food. When it leaves the stomach, food is the
consistency of a liquid or paste. From there the food moves to the small intestine.
Small Intestine
Made up of three segments, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, the small intestine
is a long tube loosely coiled in the abdomen (spread out, it would be more than 20 feet
long). The small intestine continues the process of breaking down food by using enzymes
released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Bile is a compound that aids in the
digestion of fat and eliminates waste products from the blood. Peristalsis (contractions) is
also at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it up with digestive secretions.
The duodenum is largely responsible for continuing the process of breaking down food, with
the jejunum and ileum being mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into
the bloodstream.

Three organs play a pivotal role in helping the stomach and small intestine digest
food:
1. Pancreas
Among other functions, the oblong pancreas secretes enzymes into the small intestine.
These enzymes break down protein, fat, and carbohydrates from the food we eat.
2. Liver
The liver has many functions, but two of its main functions within the digestive system
are to make and secrete bile, and to cleanse and purify the blood coming from the
small intestine containing the nutrients just absorbed.
3. Gallbladder
It is a pear-shaped reservoir that sits just under the liver and stores bile. Bile is made in
the liver then if it needs to be stored travels to the gallbladder through a channel called the
cystic duct. During a meal, the gallbladder contracts, sending bile to the small intestine.
Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover liquid has passed through the
small intestine, what is left of the food you ate is handed over to the large intestine, or colon.
Colon (Large Intestine)
The colon is a 5- to 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects the cecum (the first part
of the large intestine to the rectum (the last part of the large intestine). It is made up of the
cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left)
colon, and the sigmoid colon (so-called for its "S" shape; the Greek letter for S is called the
sigma), which connects to the rectum.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by
means of peristalsis (contractions), first in a liquid state and ultimately in solid form as the
water is removed from the stool. A stool is stored in the sigmoid colon until a "mass
movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36
hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and
bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing
various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against
harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its
contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

MACRONUTRIENTS
1. Carbohydrates- Carbohydrates comprise sugar molecules called saccharides. These
molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The function of carbohydrates is to provide people with energy.
Types
1.1 Simple carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar molecules and
include glucose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose.
Simple carbohydrates naturally occur in fruits, fruit juices, milk and milk products.
1.2 Complex carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates contain longer, more complex chains of sugars. They include
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Complex carbohydrates also contain fiber and
starch.
Examples of complex carbohydrates include:
 whole grains, including some types of bread, cereal, pasta, and rice
 peas and beans
 vegetables and fruits
1.3 Refined carbohydrates
Refined carbohydrates are foods that have gone through processing that removes
some of their ingredients, such as fiber and minerals.
These carbohydrates include sweeteners and high fructose corn syrup, which
manufacturers often add to processed foods.
Examples of refined carbohydrates include:

 white bread, pasta, and rice

 processed breakfast cereals
 cakes, sweets, and baked goods
 sweeteners and high fructose corn syrup

How does the body process carbohydrates?

The body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose to use them as:
 a steady source of energy for bodily functions
 a quick and instant source of energy when exercising
 a reserve of energy that the body stores in the muscles or liver and releases when
necessary
* If the body is already storing enough energy and does not require more, it converts
the glucose to fat, which can lead to weight gain.
* Glucose cannot stay in the bloodstream, as it can be damaging and toxic. After a
person eats, the pancreas releases insulin to help move glucose into the body’s cells,
which can use or store it.
* Insulin is responsible for preventing a person’s blood sugar levels from getting too high.
*A diet that contains lots of sugary foods and carbohydrates can cause too much
reliance on the insulin response, which may lead to health issues such
as diabetes or obesity.

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

 Not all carbohydrates release energy at the same rate. The Glycemic Index (GI) is a
scale that measures how quickly specific foods release glucose into the bloodstream. It is a
measure used to determine how much a food can affect your blood sugar levels. Several
factors affect the glycemic index of a food, including the nutrient composition, ripeness,
cooking method, and amount of processing it has undergone.

Health Effects of Starch and Fibers

Fiber-rich carbohydrate foods benefit health in many ways. Foods such as whole grains,
legumes, vegetables, and fruits supply valuable vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals,
along with abundant dietary fiber and little or no fat. 
1. Heart Disease
Diets rich in whole grains, legumes, and vegetables, especially those rich in whole grains,
may protect against heart disease and stroke by lowering blood pressure, improving blood
lipids, and reducing inflammation. Such diets are generally low in saturated fat, trans fat,
and cholesterol and high in dietary fibers, vegetable proteins, and phytochemicals—all
factors associated with a lower risk of heart disease.
Trans fats are the worst type of fat for the heart, blood vessels, and rest of the body because
they:
 Raise bad LDL and lower good HDL
 Create inflammation– a reaction related to immunity – which has been implicated in
heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and other chronic conditions
 Contribute to insulin resistance
 Can have harmful health effects even in small amounts – for each additional 2
percent of calories from trans-fat consumed daily, the risk of coronary heart disease
increases by 23 percent.

2. Diabetes
High-fiber foods—and especially whole grains—play a key role in reducing the risk of
type 2 diabetes. The soluble fibers of foods such as oats and legumes can help regulate the
blood glucose following a carbohydrate-rich meal. Soluble fibers trap nutrients and delay
their transit through the digestive tract, slows absorption of glucose and prevents the
glucose surge and rebound often associated with diabetes onset.
The term glycemic response refers to how quickly glucose is absorbed after a person eats,
how high blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to normal. Slow absorption, the
moderate rise in blood glucose, and a smooth return to normal are desirable (a low glycemic
response). Fast absorption, a rise in blood glucose, and an overreaction that plunges
glucose below normal are less desirable (a high glycemic response). Different foods have
different effects on blood glucose. The glycemic index, a method of classifying foods
according to their potential to raise blood glucose.
3. GI Health
Soluble and insoluble fibers, along with ample fluid intake, may enhance the health of
the large intestine. The healthier the intestinal walls, the better they can block absorption of
unwanted constituents. Soluble fibers help to maintain normal colonic bacteria necessary
for intestinal health. Insoluble fibers that both enlarge and soften stools such as cellulose
(in cereal brans, fruits, and vegetables) ease elimination for the rectal muscles and thereby
alleviate or prevent constipation and hemorrhoids.

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

Some fibers (again, such as cereal bran) help keep the contents of the intestinal tract
moving easily. This action helps prevent compaction of the intestinal contents, which could
obstruct the appendix and permit bacteria to invade and infect it. In addition, fibers
stimulate the muscles of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract so that they retain their strength and
resist bulging out in places, as occurs in diverticulosis. Insoluble fiber seems to be most
beneficial in lowering the risk of diverticulosis- a clinical condition in which multiple
sac-like protrusions (diverticula) develop along the gastrointestinal tract.
4. Cancer
Many studies show that, as people increase their dietary fiber intakes, their risk for
colon cancer declines. A recent meta-analysis using data from several studies exposed a
strong, linear inverse association between dietary fiber and colon cancer. People who ate the
most fiber (24 grams per day) reduced their risk of colon and rectal cancer by almost 30
percent compared with those who ate the least (10 grams per day). Mid-range intakes (18
grams per day) reduced the risk by 20 percent. Importantly, fiber from food but not from
supplements demonstrates this association, possibly because fiber supplements lack the
nutrients and phytochemicals of whole foods that may also help to protect against cancers.
All plant foods—vegetables, fruits, and whole-grain products—have attributes that may
reduce the risks of colon and rectal cancers. Their fiber dilutes, binds, and rapidly removes
potential cancer-causing agents from the colon. In addition, the colon’s bacteria ferment
soluble fibers, forming small fatlike molecules that lower the pH. These small fatlike
molecules activate cancer-killing enzymes and inhibit inflammation in the colon.
5. Weight Management
Fiber-rich foods tend to be low in fat and added sugars and therefore prevent weight gain
and promote weight loss by delivering less energy per bite. Moreover, fibers absorb water
from digestive juices as they swell, create feelings of fullness, interrupt hunger, and lower
food intake. Soluble fibers is effective for appetite control. In a recent study, soluble fiber
from barley shifted the body’s mix of appetite-regulating hormones toward reducing food
intake. By whatever mechanism, as populations eat more refined low-fiber foods and
concentrated sweets, body fat stores creep up. In contrast, people who eat three or more
whole grain servings each day tend to have lower body and abdominal fatness over time.
Weight-loss products contains bulk-inducing fibers (such as methylcellulose), but pure fiber
compounds are not advised. High-fiber foods not only add bulk to the diet but are
economical, are nutritious, and supply health-promoting phytochemicals— benefits that no
purified fiber preparation can match.
Harmful Effects of Excessive Fiber Intake
Despite fiber’s benefits to health, when too much fiber is consumed, some minerals
may bind to it and be excreted with it without becoming available for the body to use. An
adequate intake of minerals and high-fiber foods does not seem to compromise mineral
balance.
People with marginal intakes who eat mostly high-fiber foods may not be able to take in
enough food to meet energy or nutrient needs. The malnourished, the elderly, and young
children adhering to all-plant (vegan) diets are especially vulnerable to this problem. Fibers
also carry water out of the body and can cause dehydration. Advice clients to add an extra
glass or two of water to go along with the fiber added to their diets. Athletes may want to
avoid bulky, fiber-rich foods just prior to competition.

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

MINERALS
Essential minerals

Major minerals

Mineral What it does Where it's found

Sodium Needed for proper fluid Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in
balance, nerve transmission, processed foods; small amounts in milk,
135-
and muscle contraction. breads, vegetables, and unprocessed
145mEq/L
meats.

Calcium Important for healthy bones Milk and milk products; canned fish
and teeth; helps muscles with bones (salmon, sardines); fortified
4.5- 5.5
relax and contract; tofu and fortified soy beverage; greens
mEq/L
important for nerve (broccoli, mustard greens); legumes.
functioning, blood clotting,
blood pressure.

Chloride Needed for proper fluid Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in
balance, stomach acid. processed foods; small amounts in milk,
98-108
meats, breads, and vegetables.
mEq/L

Magnesium Found in bones; needed for Nuts and seeds, legumes, leafy green
making protein, muscle vegetables, seafood, chocolate
1.5-2.5
contraction, nerve
mEq/L
transmission, immune
system health.

Phosphorus Important for healthy bones Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk.
and teeth; found in every cell;
1.7-2.6
part of the system that
mEq/L
maintains acid-base balance.

Potassium Needed for proper fluid Meats, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables,
balance, nerve transmission, whole grains, legumes.
3-5.5
and muscle contraction.
mEq/L

Sulfur An indicator of your liver's Occurs in foods as part of protein:

efficiency in removing many meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk,
0.32–0.39
drugs, steroid hormones, and legumes, nuts.
mMol/L
toxic compounds.

Trace minerals

Mineral What it does Where it's found

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy

 Iron Part of a molecule
(hemoglobin) found in red
blood cells that carries
oxygen in the body; needed
for energy metabolism.
Organ meats, red meats, fish, poultry,
shellfish (especially clams), egg yolks,
legumes, dried fruits, dark leafy greens,
iron-enriched breads and cereals, and
fortified cereals.

Zinc Part of many enzymes; Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole

needed for making protein grains, vegetables.
and genetic material; has a
function in taste perception,
wound healing, normal fetal
development, production of
sperm, normal growth and
sexual maturation, immune
system health.

Chromium Works closely with insulin to Liver, brewer's yeast, whole grains,

regulate blood sugar nuts, cheeses.
(glucose) levels.

Copper Part of many enzymes; Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole grains,

needed for iron metabolism. organ meats, drinking water.

Fluoride Involved in formation of Drinking water (either fluoridated or

bones and teeth; helps naturally containing fluoride), fish, and
prevent tooth decay. most teas.

Iodine Found in thyroid hormone, Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil,

which helps regulate growth, iodized salt, bread, dairy products.
development, and
metabolism.

Manganese Part of many enzymes. Widespread in foods, especially plant

foods.

Molybdenu Part of some enzymes. Legumes, breads and grains, leafy

m greens, leafy green vegetables, milk,
liver.

Selenium Antioxidant Meats, seafood, grains.

Other trace minerals known to be essential in tiny amounts include nickel, silicon,
vanadium, and cobalt.

Too much of something is bad. Too little of something is also bad.

-Sir Rigor

NCM 105 – Nutrition and Diet Therapy