IV.

Digestive System

RADIOGRAPHIC CORRELATION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system extends from the lips to the anus and consists of the oral cavity, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum), and large intestine (vermiform
appendix; cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon; rectum; and anal canal).
Associated organs include the liver, gallbladder, spleen, and pancreas

The spleen, pancreas, and duodenum, are revealed by the removal of the stomach, transverse colon, and
peritoneum.

The function of the digestive system is digestion and absorption. The digestive system is divided into two
major parts:

 Digestive tract (alimentary canal) is a continuous tube with two openings: the mouth and the
anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
Food will pass through the cavity or lumen of the digestive tract, absorb through the wall of the
digestive tract and passes into blood or lymphatic vessels.
 Accessory organs include teeth and tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

The major parts off the Digestive System

 Salivary glands
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small Intestine
 Large Intestine
 Rectum
 Accessory digestive organs: liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Mouth – Salivary enzymes begin carbohydrate digestion and break up food particles.

Salivary glands – moistens ands lubricates food. The enzyme amylase digests carbohydrates.

Pharynx – directs food into the stomach to prevent choking.

• Nasal part – is the portion of the pharynx that is posterior to the nasal cavity and extends inferiorly to
the uvula.

• Oral part – means of a passage called an isthmus.

• Laryngeal part – also referred to as the hypopharynx, is the most caudal portion of the pharynx and is
a crucial connection point through which food, water, and air pass

Esophagus – carries food down from the mouth to the stomach (25-cm (10inch) long tube) Located on
the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity

 Cervical part begins at the cricopharyngeus and terminates at the suprasternal notch
  Thoracic part lies between the vertebral column and the trachea in the superior mediastinum,
extending from the suprasternal notch to the Diaphragm
 Abdominal part – lies in the esophageal groove on the

Stomach- secretes gastric juice and hydrochloric acid, and activates enzymes, continue to breakdown
food and kill off any pathogens, Stores and churns food, enzyme pepsin digest protein. AJ-shaped sac-like
organ with strong muscular wall, (peristalsis-movement of or Series of contractions)

Liver – The largest organ inside the body. Makes bile (fluid that helps break down fats and gets rid of
wastes in the body); changes food into energy; and clears alcohol, some medicines, and poison from the
blood. Stores vitamins and iron. Destroys old blood cells.

Pancreas - glands that makes enzymes fro digestion, and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid. Also
makes the hormone Insulin, which help the body turn food into energy, and regulates blood sugar levels.

 Tail- narrow; it extends to the left as far as the lower part of the gastric surface of the spleen,
lying in the phrenicolienal ligament, and it is in contact with the left colic flexure.
 Body is the middle part of the pancreas between the neck and the tail.
 Neck - springs from the right upper portion of the front of the head. It is about 2.5 cm. long, and
is directed at first upward and forward, and then upward and to the left to join the body; it is
somewhat flattened from above downward and backward.
 Head - located on the right side of the abdomen to the right and superior of the superior
mesenteric vessels, while the uncinate process of the head is located to the right and posterior
to the superior mesenteric vessels.

Gallbladder – stores the bile made in the liver, and empties it into the small intestine to help digest
fats. Stones can form within.

Small Intestine – digests protein, fats and carbohydrates. Bacterial metabolism plus nutrient and
excess water absorption. Surface is covered in villi fro greater absorption, site of fructose
malabsorption and Celiac disease.

Appendix – a pouch, a small tube attached to the first part of the large intestine (ascending colon).
No one’s knows its function.

Large Intestine - Also called the colon It absorbs water and electrolytes from stool. It also contains
beneficial bacteria which help produce certain vitamins. Forms and sores feces. The Colon is a five-to
seven-foot long muscular tube that connects small intestine.

Rectum – The lower end of the large Intestine, leading to the anus. Stores and expels feces. The
rectum is an eight-inch chamber that connects to the anus. (the final 15cm (6 inches) of the large
intestine)

Anus - the opening at the end of the digestive tract where bowel movements leave the body. The
anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of muscles that line the pelvis (pelvic floor
muscles). The two muscles called anal sphincters (internal and external
Three accessory digestive organs

Liver – The largest organ inside the body. Makes bile (fluid that helps break down fats and gets rid of
wastes in the body); changes food into energy; and clears alcohol, some medicines, and poison from
the blood. Stores vitamins and iron. Destroys old blood cells.

Pancreas a glands that makes enzymes fro digestion, and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid.
Also makes the hormone Insulin, which helps the body turn food into energy, and regulates blood
sugar levels.

Gallbladder – stores the bile made in the liver, and empties it into the small intestine to help digest
fats. Stones can form within

Basic Functions of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion is the process of eating

2. Propulsion (Motility) – is the movement of food along the digestive tact. The major means of
propulsion is peristalsis, a series of alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle
that lines the walls of the digestive organs and that forces for to move forward.
3. Secretion of the digestive enzymes and other substances liquefies, adjusts the pH of, and
chemically breaks down the food.
4. Mechanical digestion – is the process of physically breaking down food into smaller pieces.
Begins with chewing of food and continues with the muscular churning of the stomach. Addition
churning occurs in the small intestine through muscular constriction of the intestine wall. The
process called segmentation, is similar to peristalsis, except that the rhythmic timing of the
muscle constrictions forces the food backward and forwards rather than forward only
5. Chemical digestion – is the process of chemically breaking down food into simpler molecules
Process if carried out by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine.
6. Absorption – is the movement of molecules (by passive diffusion or active transport) from the
digestive tract to adjacent blood and lymphatic vessels. Absorption is the entrance of the
digested food (Now called nutrients) into the body.
7. Defecation – is the process of eliminating undigested material through the anus.

Digestive System Physiology

 Ingestion of food – simply refers to the act of taking food into your body. It’s the first step in
a long journey that food takes to nourish your cells.
 Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes – The secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes is
acrucial part of the digestive process, which breaks down food into its basic components so
your body can absorb them.
  Mixing and movement of food and waste through the body is a complex process called
digestion. It takes place in the digestive system, a long, muscular tube that winds its way
from your mouth to your anus. The digestive system is made up of several organs, each with
its own specific role in breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste

Digestion of food into smaller pieces – Digestion of food into smaller pieces is the first crucial step in
our body’s process of extracting essential nutrients from the food we eat. It occurs through two main
mechanisms: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.

Absorption of nutrients – is the final step in getting the goodness out of your food! It’s the process
where your body takes the broken-down components of food (nutrients) and delivers them to your
bloodstream and cells, where they can be used for energy, growth, and repair.

Excretion of wastes – is a crucial process for all living organisms, from the tiniest bacteria to the
largest blue whale. It’s how they get rid of toxic byproducts and unwanted materials that build up
during their normal life activities.

DIGESTION-is the complex process of turning the food you eat into nutrients, which then body uses
for energy, growth and cell repair needed to survive. The digestion also involves creating waste to be
eliminated. (mechanical digestion and chemical digestion)

Common digestive conditions:

 Gastroesophageal Reflux disease (GERD) – acid reflux

 Gallstones – are small, hardened deposits of material that form in your gallbladder, a pear-
shaped organ located just below your liver. They are made of cholesterol, bilirubin (a waste
product from red blood cells), and calcium salts.
 Celiac Disease – a serious sensitivity to gluten (protein found in wheat, rye and barley)
 Crohn’s disease – is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes inflammation of
your digestive tract. It can affect any part of the digestive tract, from the mouth to the anus,
but most commonly involves the small intestine and the colon (large intestine). Unlike
ulcerative colitis, which only affects the inner lining of the large intestine, Crohn’s disease
can affect the entire thickness of the bowel wall. This can lead to deep ulcers, scar tissue
(fibrosis), and narrowing (strictures) of the bowel.
 Ulcerative Colitis – inflammatory bowel disease affecting the colon or large intestine
Irritable Bowel Syndrome – common digestive condition
 Hemorrhoids – inflammation of the blood vessels at the end of the digestive tract
 Diverticulitis – inflammation or infection of the small pouches called diverticula
 Anal Fissure – oval shaped tears in the lining of the very end of the digestive tract called
anus.

Radiographic procedures related to Digestive system

 Sialography – SRE of the Salivary glands and the ducts

 Esophagogram/Esophagography (barium swallow) – examination of the entire length of the
esophagus using BaSo4 (Barium Sulfate)
  UGIS (Upper Gastro-Intestinal Series) Radiolucent and radiopaque CM are used to visualized
the GI Tract Radiolucent or negative CM include swallowed air, carbon dioxide, gas crystals
and gas bubbles in the stomach. Calcium and magnesium citrate carbonate crystals are most
commonly used to produce carbon dioxide gas. The most common positive or radiopaque
CM used in the Gl is barium sulfate or BaSO4
 SIS (small Intestinal Series or Small bowel Series) radiographic examination used to
demonstrate the whole of the small bowel from the duodenum jejunal flexure to the
ileocecal valve using BaSo4.
 Barium Enema (BE) or Retrograde Enema radiographic contrast study of the large
intestine/colon
 Hypotonic Duodenography – radiographic examination of the duodenal loop by out lining it
in placid state free from peristalsis movement.

Respiratory System - network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. Help body absorb oxygen
from the air so organs can work. It also cleans waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, from the blood.

- Consists of the parts of the body through which air passes as it travels from the nose and
mouth into the lungs.

Diaphragm - important structure of the respiratory system, dome-shaped, the primary muscles of
inspiration (hemidiaphragm-each half of the diaphragm).

Respiration - is the exchange of gaseous substances between the air we breathe and the bloodstream.
4 General Divisions of the Respiratory system:
1. Pharynx - passageway that is important to the RS

2. Trachea - also known as the windpipe, is a tube-shaped structure in your neck and upper chest that
plays a vital role in your respiratory system. It connects your larynx (voice box) to your bronchi, which are
the two main airways that lead to your lungs.

3. Bronchi - are two large tubes that branch off from the trachea (windpipe) and carry air into the lungs.
They are a crucial part of the respiratory system, as they play a vital role in bringing oxygen-rich air into
the body and removing carbon dioxide waste.

4. Lungs - are two spongy, air-filled organs that are located in the chest cavity, one on each side of the
heart. They are the main organs of the respiratory system, which is responsible for taking in oxygen and
releasing carbon dioxide.

Parts:
Airways - deliver airs to your lungs

• Mouth and nose

• Sinuses

• Pharynx (throat)

• Trachea

• Bronchial tubes

• Lungs

Mouth and nose - openings that pull air from outside the body and into the respiratory system
Sinuses - hollow areas between the bones in the head that help regulate the temperature and humidity
of the air you inhale.

Pharynx (throat) - tubes that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe)

- passageway for food and fluids as well as air; common to digestive and respiratory system.

3 Division:
1. Nasopharynx - is the upper part of your throat, located behind your nose and just above the roof of
your mouth. It's a small, muscular chamber that connects your nose to your pharynx, which is the
passageway for air going from your nose and mouth to your windpipe and lungs.

2. Oropharynx - is the middle section of the pharynx, which is a muscular tube-like structure located in
the back of your throat. It connects your mouth to your esophagus and larynx (voice box).

3. Laryngopharynx - also known as the hypopharynx, is the lowest part of the pharynx, a muscular tube
in the back of your throat that helps with both breathing and swallowing. It is located just below the
oropharynx (middle part of the pharynx) and extends down to the esophagus (tube that connects your
throat to your stomach).

 Hard palate and soft palate - make up the roof of the oral cavity.
 Uvula - boundary between nasopharynx and oropharynx
 Epiglottis - is a small, leaf-shaped piece of cartilage located in the throat, behind the tongue and
above the larynx (voice box). It acts as a lid, covering the trachea (windpipe) when you swallow
to prevent food and drink from entering your lungs.

Trachea - passage connecting the throat and lungs

Bronchial tubes - tubes at the bottom of the windpipe that connect into each lung

Lungs - two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into the bloodstream.

• From the lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all organs and other tissues.
• Muscles and bones help move the air inhale into and out of the lungs.

• Some of the bones and muscles in the respiratory system includes

• Diaphragm - muscles that help your lungs pull in air and push it out.

• Ribs - bones that surround and protect the lungs and heart.

• When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body.

Components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
• Alveoli - tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen takes place

• Bronchioles - small branches of the bronchial tube that lead to the alveoli

• Capillaries - blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Lung lobes – sections of the lungs; 3 lobes in the right lung, and 2 in the left lung

• Pleura - this sacs that surround each lung lobes and separate the lungs from the chest wall.

Some other components of the respiratory system include:

• Cilia - tiny hairs that move in or move like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of your airways.

• Epiglottis - tissue flags at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to keep food and
liquids out of the airways.

• Larynx (voicebox) - hollow organs that allow you to talk and makes sounds when air moves in and out.

Functions:
• Allows you to talk and to smell

• Warm air to match your body temperature and moisturizer it to the humidity level your body needs.

• Delivered oxygen to the cells in your body

• Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when exhale.

• Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants.

Problems common with the Respiratory System (pathologies)

• Allergies - are a type of immune system response to substances that are normally harmlessto most
people. These substances, called allergens, can trigger an immune response that leads to a variety of
symptoms.

• Asthma - is a chronic lung disease that affects people of all ages. It causes inflammation (swelling) in
the airways of the lungs, which makes it difficult to breathe.

•Infection - Pneumonia-inflammation of the lungs

 Bronchitis - inflammation of the bronchial tubes

 Influenza - flu

•Disease - respiratory disorders

 lung cancer
 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

• Aging - lungs capacity decreases as you get older

• Damage - can cause breathing problem

Test/Modalities used to detect respiratory pathologies

1. CT scan and MRI - these tests allow the doctor to see swelling or blockage in the lungs and

other parts.

2. Pulmonary function test - "spirometry" - a device that can tell how much air you inhale and exhale

3. ULT - a type of imaging test that uses sound waves to create images of the inside of your body. It is a
safe and painless procedure that is often used to diagnose a variety of medical conditions.

4. PET - is a type of nuclear medicine imaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to visualize and
measure changes in metabolic processes in the body. It is a non-invasive and painless procedure that
provides detailed information about the function of organs and tissues.

Radiologic exam of respiratory system:

• Bronchography - radiographic (x-ray) exam of the entire passageway of the lower respiratory

tract.

• Chest X-ray - commonly performed, the oldest radiographic examination of the respiratory system

- produces image of the heart, lungs, airways, blood vessels and bones of the spine and chest.

The radiographic correlation of the respiratory system refers to the relationship between the findings on
a chest X-ray or other imaging modality and the underlying pathology in the respiratory system.
Here are some common radiographic findings and their corresponding correlations:

Chest X-ray:
 Pneumonia: Consolidation (opacification) of lung tissue, often with air bronchograms (dark lines
outlining the air-filled bronchi).
 Pleural effusion: Fluid accumulation in the space between the lung and the chest wall, appearing
as a homogenous opacity along the chest wall.
 Pneumothorax: Air accumulation in the space between the lung and the chest wall, appearing as
a lucent (black) area outlining the edge of the lung.
 Interstitial lung disease: Reticular pattern of fine lines in the lung fields, representing
inflammation or fibrosis in the interstitium (the tissue between the air sacs).
 Cardiomegaly: Enlarged heart, seen as an increase in the size of the heart shadow on the chest
X-ray.

CT scan:
 Lung nodules: Small, rounded opacities in the lung parenchyma, which can be benign or
malignant.
 Bronchiectasis: Dilatation and thickening of bronchial walls.
 Emphysema: Destruction of the lung parenchyma, seen as areas of low density on the CT scan.

MRI:
 Lung cancer: Mass lesion in the lung parenchyma, often with irregular borders and enhancement
on contrast-enhanced
 Pulmonary embolism: Blood clot in the pulmonary artery, seen as a filling defect on MRI.

Chest
1. PA - demonstrates pleural effusions, pneumothorax, atelectasis, and signs of infection.

2. Lateral - a 90° perspective from PA projection may demonstrate pathology situated posterior to the
heart, great vessels, and sternum.

Upper Airway
4. Lateral - refers to the side walls of the upper airway passage, which extends from the noseto the
larynx

5. AP - refers to the front-to-back dimension. It's an important measurement used to assess the size and
shape of the airway passage, which can impact breathing and influence conditions like sleep apnea.