Human physiology

Digestive system:

Esophagus

Pancreas

Liver
Stomach
 A
Gall Bladder
Large intestine

Small intestine

Appendix

Digestion phase includes:

 Ingestion – food is taken into the body via the act of eating
 Digestion – food is broken down both physically (e.g., mastication) and chemically (e.g.,
enzymatic hydrolysis)
 Absorption – digested food products are absorbed into the bloodstream and
transported to cells
 Assimilation – digested food products are converted into the fluid and solid parts of a
cell / tissue
 Elimination – undigested food residues are egested from the body as semi-solid faeces.

There are two major groups of organs which comprise the human digestive system:
The alimentary canal: consists of organs through which food actually passes (esophagus,
stomach, small & large intestine)
The accessory organs: aid in digestion but do not actually transfer food (salivary glands,
pancreas, liver, gall bladder)

Digestion types:
 - Mechanical (physical): chew, tear, grind, mash, mix
- Chemical (enzymatic reactions to improve digestion) : carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
(fats, called triglycerides), starch, sugar
- Monosaccharides: fructose, glucose, ribose, deoxyribose
- Disaccharides means that it contains to different types of monosaccharides. Example,
lactose (consists of glucose and galactose), sucrose (consists of fructose and glucose),
maltose (glucose and glucose)
Digestive system organization:
- Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
- Tube within a tube
- Direct link/path between organs
Structures:
- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
- Rectum
- Anus
Key Features:
- Stomach should look like a ‘J’-shaped bag and be connected to the esophagus and small
intestine
- Liver should look like a right-angled triangle and be superimposed to the left of the
stomach (right side of the human)
- Bile duct (connected to gall bladder) and pancreatic duct should both feed into a U-
shaped bend of the small intestine
- Small intestine should be thinner in width than the large intestine
Mouth:
• Teeth mechanically break down food into small pieces. Tongue mixes food with saliva
which adds lubricants to make food easier to swallow (contains amylase, which helps
break down starch). When we swallow the food change its name into bolous.
 ’
Pharynx:
Epiglottis is a flap-like structure at the back of the throat that closes over the trachea preventing
food from entering it. It is located in the Pharynx.
Esophagus:
• Approximately 20 cm long.
• Functions include:
1. Secrete mucus
2. Moves food from the throat to the stomach using muscle movement called peristalsis
• If acid from the stomach gets in here that’s heartburn.
Stomach:
- J-shaped muscular bag that stores the food you eat, breaks it down into tiny pieces.
- Mixes food with Digestive Juices that contain enzymes and hydrochloridic acids to break
down Proteins and Lipids.
- Acid (HCL) in the stomach Kills Bacteria, viruses and parasites, pH is typically 1.5-2
(extremely acidic).
- Food found in the stomach is called chyme.
Duodenum:
- It’s the first part of the small intestine
- Chyme is mixed with bile from liver and in the stored gall bladder and pancreatic juice.
- It connects to the stomach. The duodenum helps to further digest food coming from the
stomach.
 - It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water from
food so they can be used by the body.
Jejunum:
The jejunum is one of three sections that make up the small intestine. The small intestine is part
of the digestive system and is vital for breaking down and absorbing nutrients. It extends from
the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the ileocecal valve that connects the small intestine to
the large intestine.
Small intestine:
- Small intestines are roughly between 5 and 7 meters long
- Peristalsis pressing food forward.
- Monomolecules are absorbed by small intestine, enter the blood system.
- Lining of intestine walls has finger-like projections called villi, to increase surface area.
- The villi are covered in microvilli which further increases surface area for absorption.
- The surface area of the small intestines is roughly 250 m 2
- Nutrients from the food pass into the bloodstream through the small intestine walls.
- Absorbs:
o 80% ingested water

o Vitamins

o Minerals

o Carbohydrates (monosaccharides)

o Proteins (amino acids)

o Lipids (fatty acids)

o Secretes digestive enzymes

Large intestine:
- About 1.5 meters long
- Rectum (short term storage which holds feces before it is expelled)
- The appendix is a vestigial organ in humans. It is quite common that it is removed
surgically after an inflammation on it.
- Functions
- Bacterial digestion, we have about 2kgs of bacteria
- Ferment carbohydrates
- Holds 1-2 kg of bacteria
- Bacteria produce vitamin K
 - Absorbs more water
- Concentrate wastes, formation of faeces (cellulose, dead bacteria, other things we can’t
digest)
- Chyme stays for 3-10h
- ( We have more bacterial cells than human cells, but human cells are much bigger)
Rectum:
The rectum is a chamber that begins at the end of the large intestine, immediately following the
sigmoid colon, and ends at the anus. Ordinarily, the rectum is empty because stool is stored
higher in the descending colon. Eventually, the descending colon becomes full, and stool passes
into the rectum, causing an urge to move the bowels (defecate). Adults and older children can
withstand this urge until they reach a bathroom. Infants and young children lack the muscle
control necessary to delay bowel movement.

Anus:
The rectum is a chamber that begins at the end of the large intestine, immediately following the
sigmoid colon, and ends at the anus. Ordinarily, the rectum is empty because stool is stored
higher in the descending colon. Eventually, the descending colon becomes full, and stool passes
into the rectum, causing an urge to move the bowels (defecate). Adults and older children can
withstand this urge until they reach a bathroom. Infants and young children lack the muscle
control necessary to delay bowel movement.
The anus is the opening at the far end of the digestive tract through which stool leaves the
body. The anus is formed partly from the surface layers of the body, including the skin, and
partly from the intestine. The anus is lined with a continuation of the external skin. A muscular
ring (anal sphincter) keeps the anus closed until the person has a bowel movement.

Accessory organs: The Glands:

- Not part of the path of food but play a critical role.
- Include: Liver, gall bladder, and pancreas.
Liver:
- Directly affects digestion by producing bile
- Bile helps digest fat
- filters out toxins and waste including drugs, alcohol, and toxins.
Gall Bladder:
- Stores bile from the liver, releases it into the small intestine.
 - Fat diets can cause gallstones
- The gallbladder is a small, pouch-like organ in the upper right part of your tummy. You
don't need a gallbladder, so surgery to take it out is often recommended if you develop
any problems with it.
Pancreas:
- Produces digestive enzymes to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
- Regulates blood sugar by producing insulin
Enzymes:
Amylase: Break down starch into simpler sugars. Origin: saliva, pancreas
Pepsin: Breaks down proteins into amino acids. Origin: stomach
Lipase: Helps to break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Origin: pancreas
Protease: Digest proteins and peptides. Origin: pancreas

Describe the functions of the following organs:

Mouth:

The mouth is involved in several essential bodily functions:

 Breathing
 Chewing
 Digesting foods and drinks
 Drinking
 Swallowing
 Talking.
 Tasting

Mechanical breakdown, mixing with salivary secretions.

Salivary Glands: They are exocrine glands that produce saliva in the oral cavity. They secrete an
enzyme called amylase, which helps in the breakdown of starch into maltose. There are three types
of salivary glands, namely:

 Parotid gland

 Submandibular gland
  Sublingual gland

Mouth: The anterior opening of the alimentary canal is the mouth. It leads to a buccal cavity or
oral cavity, where teeth, tongue and salivary glands are present. Here, ingestion, mastication, and
swallowing of food occur. In humans, there are a total of 32 permanent teeth. There are four
different types of teeth, namely, incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. These help in the
chewing of food.

Oesophagus: The primary function of your esophagus is to carry food and liquid from your
mouth to your stomach. When you swallow, food and liquid first move from your mouth to your
throat (pharynx). A small muscular flap called the epiglottis closes to prevent food and liquid
from going down the “wrong pipe” — your windpipe (trachea). Another small flap called the
uvula helps prevent liquid from passing upward into your nasal cavity.
Stomach: The esophagus leads to a sac-like organ called the stomach. It is a muscular, hollow organ,
having a capacity of 1 liter. The stomach holds food and also is a mixer and grinder. It secretes
strong acids and powerful enzymes that help in the process of breaking down of food. Food is
generally in a liquid or pastes consistency when it leaves the stomach.

Pancreas: An exocrine gland runs the length of your pancreas. It produces enzymes that help to
break down food (digestion). Your pancreas releases the following enzymes:

 Lipase: Works with bile (a fluid produced by the liver) to break down fats.

 Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates for energy.
 Protease: Breaks down proteins.

When food enters your stomach:

1. Your pancreas releases the pancreatic enzymes into small ducts (tubes) that flow into
the main pancreatic duct.
2. Your main pancreatic duct connects with your bile duct. This duct transports bile from
your liver to your gallbladder.
3. From the gallbladder, the bile travels to part of your small intestine called the
duodenum.
4. Both the bile and the pancreatic enzymes enter your duodenum to break down food.

Liver: The liver has hundreds of jobs. Some of the most vital are:

 Cleans toxins (harmful substances) out of the blood.

 Gets rid of old red blood cells.
 Makes bile, a fluid that helps the body digest (break down) food.
  Metabolizes proteins, carbohydrates, and fats so your body can use them.
 Produces substances to help blood clot.
 Regulates the amount of blood in the body.
 Stores glycogen (an energy source) and vitamins to be used by the body later.

Gallbladder: Your gallbladder is part of your digestive system. Its main function is to store bile.
Bile helps your digestive system break down fats. Bile is a mixture of mainly cholesterol,
bilirubin, and bile salts. Before you start eating, your gallbladder is full of bile. When you start
eating, your gallbladder receives signals to contract and squeeze the stored bile through the
biliary tract. The bile eventually finds its way to your largest bile duct, the common bile duct.
Bile passes through the common bile duct into the duodenum, the first part of your small
intestine, where it mixes with food waiting to be digested. After you eat, your gallbladder is
empty and resembles a deflated balloon, waiting to be filled up again.
Small intestine: The small intestine is a long tube, which loosely coils in the abdomen area. Here,
enzymes from the pancreas and liver further break down the food. Three segments make up the
small intestines, which are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The contractions of the small
intestine help in the movement of food, along with its breakdown, after mixing with the digestive
secretions. The jejunum and ileum areas of the small intestine are responsible for the absorption of
food into the blood, though their villi.
Large intestine (colon): When the large intestine receives food from the small intestine, the
food has been liquified by the digestive process and most of the nutrients have been absorbed.
The colon’s job is to dehydrate what’s left of the food and form it into stool. It does this by
slowly absorbing water and electrolytes as its muscle system moves the waste along.
Meanwhile, bacteria living in your colon feed on the waste and break it down further,
completing the chemical part of the digestive process.

Rectum: The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The
rectum's job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated
(pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool)
comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal
contents can be released or not.

If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents
cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodate so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.

Anus: The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch-long canal consisting of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper
anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or
solid.
The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The
pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from
coming out when it’s not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool
enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we
are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.

When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool
until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

Alimentary Canal:

Esophagus
•  A hollow tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach (separated from the trachea by the
epiglottis)
•  Food is mixed with saliva and then is moved in a bolus via the action of peristalsis

Stomach
•  A temporary storage tank where food is mixed by churning and protein digestion begins
•  It is lined by gastric pits that release digestive juices, which create an acidic environment (pH
~2)

Small Intestine
•  A long, highly folded tube where usable food substances (nutrients) are absorbed
•  Consists of three sections – the duodenum, jejunum and ileum
Large Intestine
•  The final section of the alimentary canal, where water and dissolved minerals (i.e. ions) are
absorbed
•  Consists of the ascending / transverse / descending / sigmoidal colon, as well as the rectum 

Accessory Organs:

Salivary Glands
•  Release saliva to moisten food and contains enzymes (e.g. amylase) to initiate starch
breakdown 
•  Salivary glands include the parotid gland, submandibular gland and sublingual gland

Pancreas
•  Produces a broad spectrum of enzymes that are released into the small intestine via the
duodenum
•  Also secretes certain hormones (insulin, glucagon), which regulate blood sugar
concentrations 

Liver
•  Takes the raw materials absorbed by the small intestine and uses them to make key chemicals
•  Its role includes detoxification, storage, metabolism, bile production and haemoglobin
breakdown

Gall Bladder
•  The gall bladder stores the bile produced by the liver (bile salts are used to emulsify fats)
•  Bile stored in the gall bladder is released into the small intestine via the common bile duct

Define the following terms.

Macromolecule Large molecules made up of smaller organic molecules. There are four
classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

In physiology, digestion pertains to the mechanical and chemical processes

to break up food into smaller or simpler constituent parts that can be
absorbed or assimilated.
Different organisms utilize different ways to digest food.
Some organisms employ external digestion whereas others use internal
Digestion
digestion. Many fungi, for instance, use external digestion in which food is
digested from the outside through secreting enzymes that degrade food
material and then absorbed through diffusion. With internal
digestion, organisms digest their food in a closed system such as through the
digestive tract, as in those of many animals.

The process of absorbing or assimilating substances into cells or across

the tissues and organs through diffusion or osmosis, as in absorption of
Absorption
nutrients by the digestive system, or absorption of drugs into the
bloodstream.
 Assimilation in biology is defined as the process in which living organisms
integrate the nutrients from various external resources to their body and
Assimilation utilizes them to satisfy the energy demands required to stay alive. In another
meaning, assimilation refers to the absorption of vitamins, minerals, and
other chemicals from food within the intestinal tract. 

Excretion is a general term referring to the separation and throwing off of

waste materials or toxic substances from the cells and tissues of a plant or
Excretion
animal. The separation, elaboration, and elimination of certain products
arising from cellular functions in multicellular organisms is called secretion.

Egestion is the act of excreting unusable or undigested material from a cell,

Egestion as in the case of single-celled organisms, or from the digestive tract of
multicellular animals.

An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost always a protein. It speeds

Enzyme
up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not
destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over.

A substrate is a molecule acted upon by an enzyme. A substrate is loaded

into the active site of the enzyme, or the place that allows weak bonds to be
formed between the two molecules. An enzyme substrate complex is
Substrate
formed, and the forces exerted on the substrate by the enzyme cause it to
react, and become the product of the intended reaction. The bonds that
form between the substrate and enzyme cause the conformational change,
or shape change, in the enzyme. The resulting shape change is what applies
pressure to the substrate, either forcing molecules together or tearing them
 apart.

For instance, the term optimum pH refers to the pH resulting in maximal

activity of a particular enzyme. Differing pH levels affect the shape of an
Optimum pH enzyme. Each enzyme has an optimal pH at which the enzyme works best.
Enzymes in the intestine for instance work best at pH of 7.5 (therefore, the
optimum pH).

Lipase is an enzyme that breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and
Lipase glycerol. Lipases are present in pancreatic secretions and are responsible for
fat digestion. Lipases are enzymes that play a crucial role in lipid transport.

A protease (also called a peptidase or proteinase) is an enzyme that

Protease catalyzes (increases reaction rate or "speeds up") proteolysis, breaking down
proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids, and spurring the
formation of new protein products.

Amylase An enzyme in the saliva and pancreatic juice that catalyzes the hydrolysis
(breaking down) of starch, glycogen, and related polysaccharides into more
simple and readily usable forms of sugar.

Bile Produced in the liver. Split fat into small droplets. Bile is stored in the gall
bladder.

Enzymes (protease, amylase, lipase). Produce alkaline substances to

 Pancreatic juice neutralizes the acidic chyme.

Large molecules made up of smaller organic molecules. There are four

Monomolecules classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Ventilation and gas exchange:

Airways for ventilation:

  Air enters the ventilation system through the nose or mouth and then passes down the
trachea. 

 The trachea has rings of cartilage in its walls to keep it open even when air pressure inside
is low or pressure in surrounding tissues is high.

 The trachea divides to form two bronchi (one to each lung), also with walls strengthened
with cartilage. 

 Inside the lungs the bronchi divide repeatedly to form a tree-like structure of narrower
airways, called bronchioles. 

At the end of the narrowest bronchioles are groups of alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.
Lung cancer:
Causes and consequences of lung cancer:

 Lung cancer is amongst the world’s most common cancer. 

 High mortality rate (only 15 % of the patients survive for more than 5 years after
diagnosis).
 87 % is caused by smoking. Tobacco smoke contains many mutagenic chemicals. The
incidence of lung cancer increases with the number of smoked cigarettes/day and
number of years of smoking.
 3 % is caused by passive smoking.
 5 % is caused by air pollution – diesel exhaust fumes, smoke from burning coal or other
organic matter.
 Radon also cause lung cancer. A radioactive gas that leaks out of certain rocks, is
accumulated in badly ventilated buildings.
 Asbestos, silica can also cause lung cancer when inhaled – often in construction sites.

Emphysema/Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease:

Causes and consequences of emphysema:

 Also caused by smoking.

 The thin-walled alveoli are replaced by air sacks with much thicker walls. 
 The total surface area for gas exchange is considerably reduced and the distance over
which diffusion of gases occurs is increased, gas exchange is therefore much less
effective.
 Lungs also become less elastic; ventilation is more difficult. 
 Chronic disease because the damage to alveoli is usually irreversible. 
 Low oxygen saturation in the blood and higher carbon dioxide concentrations.

Physiological respiration involves the transport of oxygen to cells within the tissues, where
energy production occurs
  It is comprised of three distinct processes and is not to be confused
with cellular respiration (a single component of the activity)

The processes involved in physiological respiration are:

 Ventilation:  The exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs – achieved by
the physical act of breathing
 Gas Exchange:  The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and
bloodstream (via passive diffusion)
 Cell Respiration:  The release of energy (ATP) from organic molecules – it is enhanced by
the presence of oxygen (aerobic)

Purpose of Ventilation
Because gas exchange is a passive process, a ventilation system is needed to maintain a
concentration gradient in alveoli
- Oxygen is consumed by cells during cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is produced
as a waste product
- This means O2 is constantly being removed from the alveoli into the bloodstream (and
CO2 is continually being released)

The lungs function as a ventilation system by continually cycling fresh air into the alveoli from
the atmosphere
- This means O2 levels stay high in alveoli (and diffuse into the blood) and CO2 levels stay
low (and diffuse from the blood)
- The lungs are also structured to have a very large surface area, so as to increase the
overall rate of gas exchange

The Respiratory System

- Air enters the respiratory system through the nose or mouth and passes through the
pharynx to the trachea
- The air travels down the trachea until it divides into two bronchi (singular: bronchus)
which connect to the lungs
- The right lung is composed of three lobes, while the left lung is only comprised of two
(smaller due to position of heart)
- Inside each lung, the bronchi divide into many smaller airways called bronchioles, greatly
increasing surface area
 - Each bronchiole terminates with a cluster of air sacs called alveoli, where gas exchange
with the bloodstream occurs

Structure of an Alveolus
Alveoli function as the site of gas exchange, and hence have specialized structural features to
help fulfil this role:
- They have a very thin epithelial layer (one cell thick) to minimize diffusion distances for
respiratory gases
- They are surrounded by a rich capillary network to increase the capacity for gas
exchange with the blood
- They are roughly spherical in shape, in order to maximize the available surface area for
gas exchange
- Their internal surface is covered with a layer of fluid, as dissolved gases are better able
to diffuse into the bloodstream

Alveolar Structure

Inspiration (inhaling) and expiration (exhaling) are controlled by two sets of antagonistic muscle
groups
 Antagonistic means working oppositely – when the inspiratory muscles contract, the
expiratory muscles relax (and vice versa)

Inspiration
The muscles responsible for inspiration are the diaphragm and external intercostals (plus some
accessory muscles)
 Diaphragm muscles contract, causing the diaphragm to flatten and increase the volume
of the thoracic cavity
  External intercostals contract, pulling ribs upwards and outwards (expanding chest)
 Additional muscle groups may help pull the ribs up and out (e.g., sternocleidomastoid
and pectoralis minor) 

Expiration
The muscles responsible for expiration are the abdominal muscles and internal intercostals (plus
some accessory muscles)
 Diaphragm muscles relax, causing the diaphragm to curve upwards and reduce the
volume of the thoracic cavity
 Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs inwards and downwards (reducing
breadth of chest)
 Abdominal muscles contract and push the diaphragm upwards during forced exhalation
 Additional muscle groups may help pull the ribs downwards (e.g., quadrates lumborum)

Circulatory system:
Circulatory system: A transportation system by which oxygen and nutrients reach the body’s
cells, and waste materials are carried away. It also carries substances called hormones, which
control body processes, and antibodies to fight invading germs.

Antibodies: a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen.

Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as
bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.

Parts of the circulatory system:

It’s divided into 3 major parts: the heart, the heart vessels, and the blood.
The heart, the blood and the blood vessels work together to form a circle part of the circulatory
system.

What is the different between veins and arteries?

- Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood towards the heart. With the
exception of pulmonary blood vessels, arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry
deoxygenated blood. Arteries have thick walls with muscle tissue. Veins have thinner walls
and use valves to keep your blood flowing.

Circulation:
- Two parts
- Hearts act as a double pump
- Blood from the right-side pump is dark red and low in oxygen (oxygen-poor)
- Travels through pulmonary arteries to lungs where it gets fresh oxygen and becomes
bright red.
- Blood from lung through the pulmonary veins back to the heart’s left-side pump.
- Pumped out into the body.
Three kinds of circulations:
- Pulmonary circulation
- Coronary circulation
- Systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart
to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
Coronary circulation: Coronary circulation, part of the systemic circulatory system that supplies
blood to and provides drainage from the tissues of the heart.
Systemic circulation: The systemic circulation provides the functional blood supply to all body
tissue. It carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells and picks up carbon dioxide and waste
products. Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, through the
arteries, to the capillaries in the tissues of the body.
Three kinds of blood vessels:

- Arteries
- Capillaries
- Veins

Arteries:
 - Carry blood AWAY from the heart
- Heart pumps blood
- The pressure in arteries is high, therefore an injury to an artery can led to massive blood
loss 
- Main artery called the aorta 
- Aorta divides and branches 
- Many smaller arteries 
- Each region of your body has system of arteries supplying it with fresh, oxygen-rich
blood.
- Tough on the outside 
- Smooth on the inside 
- Muscular wall helps the heart pump blood
- Have strong, muscular walls
- The inner layer is very smooth so that the blood can flow easily
Capillaries:
- Very thin
- Only one cell thick
- Connect arteries & veins
- Food and oxygen released to the body cells 
- Carbon dioxide and other waste products returned to the bloodstream

Veins:
- Carry blood to the heart
- Receive blood from the capillaries
- Transport waste-rich/ oxygen-poor (except in pulmonary circulation) blood back to the
heart 
- Valves are located inside the veins 
- Allow blood to move in one direction
The heart:
- Size of your fist 
- Thick muscular walls 
- Divided into two pumps 
- Each pump has two chambers 
- Upper chamber - atrium receives blood coming in from the veins 
- Lower chamber - ventricle squeezes blood out into the arteries
Cardiovascular disease: cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a general term for conditions affecting
the heart or blood vessels. It's usually associated with a build-up of fatty deposits inside the
arteries (atherosclerosis) and an increased risk of blood clots.
Arteries can clog or weaken:
Atherosclerosis:
Fatty material collects along the walls of arteries. This fatty material thickens, hardens (forms
calcium deposits), and may eventually block the arteries.
Coronary arteries
Narrow and vulnerable to clogging by plaques
- Angina pectoris
Medical term for chest pain or discomfort due to coronary heart disease
Ways to repair coronary blockage:
- Coronary bypass
- Laser angioplasty
- Balloon angioplasty
- Aneurysm
- Weak spot on a blood vessel that can rupture

Plagues and blood clots that may clog arteries:

Risk factors for atherosclerosis include:
- Diabetes
 - Heavy alcohol use
- High blood pressure
- High blood cholesterol levels
- High-fat diet
- Increasing age
- Obesity
- Personal or family history of heart disease
- Smoking
Heart Damage Can Lead to Heart Attack and Heart Failure:

Heart attack
- Damage or death to cardiac muscle
Warning signs: 
- Chest discomfort
- Discomfort in other areas of the upper body
- Shortness of breath
- cold sweat, nausea, or light-headedness

Heart Failure
- Weak heart and ineffective pump

Arrhythmias Are Abnormal Heart Rhythms:

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
- Recording of the electrical activity of the cardiac cycle

Arrhythmias: irregular heart rhythms

- Bradycardia: slower than normal heart rate
- Tachycardia: faster than normal heart rate
- Ventricular fibrillation: rapid, erratic electrical impulses
- Ventricular fibrillation results in cardiac arrest with loss of consciousness and no pulse
Immune system:
Viruses vs. Bacteria:

 Colds and influenza are caused by viruses,

 Viruses are which non-living particle that contains genetic material and hijacks your cells to
reproduce.
 Viruses can’t be killed with antibiotics.
 Bacteria are living organisms that have a metabolism, have DNA, and can reproduce on their
own.
 Bacteria can be killed with antibiotics because these substances target key processes in bacteria,
such as production of the bacterial cell wall.

The not-so-common cold:

 A “cold” is an infection of the mucus membrane of the respiratory system tract by a rhinovirus.
 Over 100 rhinoviruses have been identified, which is one reason why we don’t become immune
to the “cold”.

Defense against diseases:

First line of defense:

 Non-specific defenses are designed to prevent infections by viruses and bacteria, these include:
1. Intact skin
 2. Mucus and cilia
3. Phagocytes

Role of skin:

 Dead skins are constantly sloughed off, making it hard for invading bacteria to colonize.
 Sweat and oils contain anti-microbial chemicals including some antibiotics.

Role of mucus and cilia:

 Mucus contains lysozymes, enzymes that destroy bacterial call walls.

 The normal flow of mucus washes bacteria and viruses off of mucus membranes.
 Cilia in the respiratory tract move mucus out of the lungs to keep bacteria and viruses out.

Role of phagocytes:

 Phagocytes are several types of white blood cells (including macrophages and neutrophils) that
seek and destroy invaders. Some also destroy damaged body cells.
 Phagocytes are attracted by an inflammatory response of damaged cells

Role of inflammation:

 Inflammation is signaled by mast cells, which release histamine.

 Histamine causes fluids to collect an injury to dilute toxins. This causes swelling.
 The temperature of the tissues may rise which can kill temperature-sensitive microbes.

Role of fever:

 Fever is a defense mechanism that can destroy many types of microbes.

 While high fevers can be dangerous, some doctors recommend letting low fevers run their
course without taking aspirin or ibuprofen.

Specific defenses:

 Specific defenses are those that give us immunity to certain diseases.

 In specific defenses, the immune system forms a chemical “memory” of the invading microbe. If
the microbe is encountered again, the body reacts so quickly that few or no symptoms are left.

Major players:

The major players in the immune system include:

 Macrophage
 T cells (helper, cytotoxic, memory)
 B cells (plasma, memory)
 Antibodies

Some vocabulary:

 Antibody: a protein produced by the human immune system to tag and destroy invasive
microbes.
 Antibiotic: Various chemicals produced by certain soil microbes that are toxic to many bacteria.
Some we use as medicines.
 Antigen: Any protein that our immune system uses to recognize “self” vs “not self”.