Human Physiology 01 - Theory Notes - PDF Only - NSEJS 2023

1 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
For NSEJS
1. NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Animals are heterotrophic in nature. They are directly or indirectly dependent on plants to obtain their
food
• The mode of nutrition may be parasitic or saprotrophic but usually animals are holozoic.
• All the basic steps of holozoic nutrition are same in unicellular to multicellular organism.
• Holozoic nutrition in animals consists of following 5-steps
• Ingestion: The process of intake of food.
• Digestion: It is the breakdown of large and complex molecules into simpler, smaller and soluble
forms.
• Absorption: Taking up of the digested food through intestinal wall to blood or body fluid.
• Assimilation: In this process absorbed food is taken by body cells.
• Egestion: The process by which undigested matter is expelled out.
(i) Nutrition in Amoeba:

• It is a unicellular organism living in water.
• Mode of nutrition is holozoic.
• The process of obtaining food is by phagocytosis (cell eating)
• Steps involved in nutrition in amoeba are:
I. Ingestion: Since it is unicellular so a single cell is responsible

for carrying out all the vital activities. Food is ingested with
the help of pseudopodia. Animal engulfs the food particle lying
near it by forming pseudopodia around it and forming a food
vacuole which is considered as its temporary stomach.
II. Digestion: The enzymes from surrounding cytoplasm enter the
food vacuole and break down the food into smaller & soluble
forms. It is intracellular in Amoeba.
III. Absorption: The digested food is now absorbed by cytoplasm
by simple diffusion.
IV. Assimilation: The food absorbed in amoeba is used to obtain
energy from respiration, for its growth and reproduction.
V. Egestion: Undigested food is thrown out of the cell.
PW OLYMPIAD WALLAH 1
(ii) Nutrition in Human Beings:
• Humans are holozoic and follow same 5- steps of nutrition.
• Humans have highly evolved and complicated digestive system consisting of an alimentary canal
and different types of digestive glands.
Concept Boosters:
 Jaws present in buccal cavity of humans are provided with four different types of teeth this is called
Heterodont.
 Thecodont means “Socket tooth”, means that thecodont teeth are set in sockets of jaw bones.
 Dental plaque is a biofilm or mass of bacteria that grows on surfaces within the mouth.
 Diastema: It is a space or gap between two teeth.
 Enamel: It is the hardest substance of human body. It covers the crown portion of the tooth.
 Dentine: It is the hard dense bony tissue forming bulk of teeth & it is second hardest tissue in body after
enamel.
 Periodontium: It refers to the specialized tissues that surround & support the teeth, maintaining them in
their respective bones.
 Reverse peristalsis or retro peristalsis is the reverse of peristalsis, usually occurs before vomiting.
 The duodenum part of small intestine receives secretions from Liver and Pancreas through a common duct
called the “Hepato-Pancreatic Duct”.
 Liver secretes “Bile” which provides alkaline medium and emulsifies the fat molecules.
 Duodenal wall secretes enterokinase which activates the trypsin
Trypsinogen ⎯Enterokina
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯se
→ Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen ⎯Try
⎯⎯ psin
⎯→ Chymotrypsin
Polypeptides ⎯Chy
⎯⎯ motry psin
⎯⎯→ Peptide fragments
 Dysphagia: Difficulty or discomfort in swallowing.
 Coprophagy: It is the consumption of own faecal matter. It has been observed in rabbits.
I. Alimentary canal: Long, hollow, tubular structure consisting of various organs for digestion.
Alimentary canal consists of following organs:
1. Mouth: It is a small slit through which food is ingested.
2. Buccal cavity: Mouth opens into a chamber called as buccal cavity. It has following components:
• Soft palate: Posterior muscular extension of hard palate is called soft palate.
• Tongue: At the floor of this cavity thick muscular structure is present called tongue. It helps in
chewing, swallowing, tasting and speaking. Tongue has various types of taste papilla.
• Teeth: Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of teeth (Heterodont):
Incisors : For cutting
Canines : For tearing
Premolars : For grinding
Molars : For grinding
• Dental formula of humans: In human beings two set of teeth appear during their life time
(Diphyodont) –
• Milk teeth: These are temporary, arise at 6 – 11 month age, 20 in number
2 2
• Permanent teeth: In adults
3. Oesophagus: Also called as food pipe. It leads the food from mouth to stomach. Oesophagus has
highly muscular walls, no digestion occurs here.
4. Stomach: It is a ‘J’ shaped bag present on left side of abdomen. It contains several branched and
tubular glands present on the inner surface of its wall, which secrete gastric juice.
5. Small Intestine: It is a coiled and narrow tube having 3 regions: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
• On the inner wall of small intestine numerous finger like projections are found which are called as
villi, they increase the surface area of absorption.
• Duodenum is proximal part of small intestine, receives secretion from liver and pancreas.
6. Large intestine: Small intestine opens into large intestine from where the undigested food material
is passed to anus through rectum. It is divided into three parts: Caecum, Colon and Rectum.
Fig.: Digestive System of Human
II. Histology of alimentary canal
Fig.: T.S. of Alimentary Canal
3 3
• The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers namely serosa,
muscularis, sub-mucosa and mucosa.
• Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin mesothelium (epithelium of visceral organs)
with some connective tissues.
• Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner circular and an outer
longitudinal layer.
• An oblique muscle layer may be present in some regions. The sub-mucosal layer is formed of loose
connective tissues containing nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
• In duodenum, glands are also present in sub-mucosa. The innermost layer lining the lumen of the
alimentary canal is the mucosa.
• This layer forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like folding called villi in
the small intestine.
• The cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections called microvilli giving a brush
border appearance. These modifications increase the surface area enormously.
• Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called the lacteal.
• Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
• Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts in between the bases of villi in
the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn). All the four layers show modifications in different parts of the
alimentary canal.
III. Digestive glands: They secrete enzymes / hormones which help in digestion. The digestive glands
include:
1. Salivary glands: It produces saliva. They help in chemical digestion. They secrete an enzyme
called salivary amylase or ptyalin. It helps in digestion of starch.
• Parotid glands: largest glands present just below the external ear. In this glands, virus causes
mumps disease. (Parotid duct/Stenson’s duct)
• Submaxillary glands / Submandibular glands: These lie beneath the jaw-angles. (Wharton’s
duct)
• Sublingual glands: Smallest glands which lie beneath the tongue and open at the floor of buccal
cavity.(Duct of Rivinus)
2. Gastric glands: Present in stomach. They secrete hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes and
mucus. Present in the mucosa of the stomach.
❖ These are of 3 types:

• Cardiac glands: secrete an alkaline mucus.
• Pyloric glands: secrete an alkaline mucus.
• Fundic glands: each gland has 5 types of cells.
• Peptic/Zymogen cells - secrete pepsinogen, prorennin
• Oxyntic cells - secrete HCI
• Goblet cells - secrete mucus
• Argentaffin cells - produces serotonin somatostatin and histamine
• G-cells - secrete and store the hormone gastrin.
4 4
3. Liver: It consists of a large right lobe, a small left lobe and two small lobes called quadrate lobe
and caudate lobe behind the main lobes. On the right lobe lies gall bladder, which, temporarily
stores bile juice, secreted by the liver. It is the largest gland, secretes bile into the small intestine.
Bile juice contains no enzyme but possesses bile salts and bile pigments (bilirubin-yellow and
biliverdin-green). Bile is alkaline in nature and helps in digestion of fats, it also helps in absorption
of fats.
• Functions of liver:
• Formation of glucose from excess organic acids.
• Storage of vitamins: A, D, E, B. Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene.
• Secretions of blood anticoagulant named heparin.
• Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen and prothrombin
• Secretion of bile, detoxification of harmful chemicals.
• Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles through phagocytic cells called Kupffer’s cells.
4. Pancreas: It lies parallel and below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice into small intestine.
Pancreatic juice contains trypsin and pancreatic amylase. Besides these two enzymes pancreas
secretes two hormones also i.e. insulin and glucagon, so it has both exocrine as well as endocrine
functions. Both bile and pancreatic juice are released into the duodenum by a common duct.
5. Intestinal glands: They secrete intestinal juice and mucus.
IV. Process of Nutrition: This system involves following process:
1. Ingestion: Intake of food is done through mouth, food is then chewed and masticated and sent to
oesophagus through pharynx by swallowing.
2. Digestion: Saliva secreted in buccal cavity starts digestion of starch into maltose. This partially
digested food is then passed to stomach by oesophagus through peristaltic movements. Food is
churned in stomach for about three hours and broken down into smaller pieces. Due to presence of
hydrochloric acid, medium of stomach becomes acidic. In acidic medium protein digestive enzyme
pepsin breaks down proteins into peptones. Gastric lipase is also secreted here which partially break
down lipids.
• Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by the sight, smell or thought of food.
• Now the partially digested food moves to small intestine i.e. in the duodenum. Duodenum receives
the secretion from liver and pancreas through a common duct which contains bile and pancreatic
juice, and alkaline in nature. So the digestion and emulsification of fats occurs at this place.
• Here in the duodenum fats are emulsified by bile, remaining proteins are digested by trypsin and
starch by pancreatic amylase.
Mind it: Duodenal wall secretes bicarbonate ions which make the medium alkaline.
• This partially digested food now enters into the ileum where intestinal juice i.e. “Succus entericus”
is secreted. At this place digestion is completed.
Carbohydrates ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Glucose
Proteins ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Amino acids
Fats ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Fatty acids and glycerol
5 5
3. Absorption: Almost no absorption takes place in mouth and oesophagus. Water, alcohol, simple
salts, and glucose are absorbed in the stomach.
• ln the small intestine, absorption of all digested materials takes place by active, passive, and
facilitated transport.
• Glucose, sodium, and amino acids are absorbed actively. The absorption of glucose or amino acids
involves carrier mediated transport which binds glucose/amino acid at one site and Na + at other
site. Therefore, the movement of glucose/amino acid is coupled to the concentration gradient of
Na+. Na moves along concentration gradient while glucose/amino acids are moving against
concentration gradient. The rate of absorption of galactose is highest.
• Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
• The products of fat digestion, monoglycerides, fatty acids, and glycerol are first incorporated into
water- soluble droplets called micelles (a combination of fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, and bile
salts); reconstructed to triglycerides in the absorptive cells and released into lymph in the form of
protein-coated water-soluble fat droplets called chylomicrons.
• In the large intestine, only water is absorbed. Absorption of vitamin B12 (cobalamine) in man
requires a glycoprotein, called intrinsic factor (IF) secreted by the parietal cells of the stomach.
Failure to absorb cobalamine causes pernicious anaemia associated with a failure of RBC
maturation and neurological abnormalities.
Mind it: Walls of small intestine have tiny finger like projections called villi, they increase the surface area
for absorption.
Fig.: A Section of small intestine showing mucosa showing crypts of leiberkuhn
6 6
4. Assimilation: The absorbed food materials are transported by blood and lymph.
• Lymph is finally transferred to the blood circulation.
• The blood transports absorbed food materials to different body cells where food materials become
integral component of the living protoplasm and are used for energy, growth and repair. This is
called assimilation of food.
• Amino acids are not stored but are taken up by the cells in connection with the synthesis of
proteins.
• Proteins are used for growth, repair, etc. Excess amino acids can be converted into glucose and then
to fat and are thus stored. This is an irreversible reaction. Amino acids can also be converted to
glucose and used as fuel for the cell. During their conversion to glucose, the amino acids are
deaminated (removal of amino groups-NH2).
• The liver is the chief site for deamination, i.e., a process by which the amino group is removed from
amino acids resulting in the production of ammonia.
• Ammonia is soon converted into urea, which is filtered from the blood in the kidney.
• The excess of monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose) are usually stored in the liver and
muscle cells in the form of glycogen (glycogenesis).
• Whenever, there is a deficiency of glucose in the blood, glycogen is converted into glucose
(glycogenolysis).
• Muscle glycogen is utilized during muscle contraction.
• Glucose is utilized in the production of energy for various body activities.
• A considerable amount of glucose is converted into fat and stored as such.
• The fat is stored in the fat deposits of the body, such as subcutaneous layers, mesenteries, etc.
• The stored fat is a readily available source of fuel for the cells.
• Fat has important insulating properties in connection with the conservation of heat and maintenance
of body temperature.
• Fat also plays a protective role as filling or packing material, between and around the organs.
• In the liver, phospholipids are formed which are returned to the blood, to be used by all the cells.
• In liver cells, it is are converted into amino acids and carbohydrates.
• Vitamins, salts, and water are also useful for various metabolic processes.
5. Egestion: The undigested food along with water (about 75%) and excess of digestive enzymes is
then collected in large intestine where water is absorbed and remaining waste is expelled out or
egested through anus. Colon absorbs water and transports excess of ions as Ca +2 , Mg+2 etc. from
blood to large intestine. The faeces are formed of 75% water, 25% solid matter which contains
roughage 30%, fats 20%, inorganic matter 15%, proteins 2% and bacteria 3% .Brown colour of
faeces is due to stercobilins.
V. Disorders of digestive system

• The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to bacterial or viral
infections. The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like tapeworm,
roundworm threadworm, hookworm, pin worm, etc.
1. Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments.
2. Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is controlled
by the vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
3. Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the faecal
discharge is known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
4. Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum as the bowel movements
occur irregularly.
5. Indigestion: In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness. The
causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, and
spicy food.
6. Mumps: It is the viral infection in parotid gland.
7 7
7. Hernia: It is protrusion of the intestine into inguinal canal and may extend into scrotal sac.
8 8
2. Respiration
Respiration : It is a biochemical process of enzyme including oxidative breakdown of organic compounds inside
living cells releasing energy in the form of ATP.
Food+O2 ⎯Oxidation
⎯⎯⎯→ CO2+H2O + Energy (ATP)
Breathing : The process by which organisms obtain oxygen from environment and release carbon dioxide
produced during oxidation of food to the outer environment is called as Breathing. It is a part of respiration.
(a) Difference between breathing and respiration :
S. No. Breathing Cellular Respiration

It is a physical phenomenon where exchange It is a biochemical process where glucose is
1.
of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water.
2. Energy is not released. Energy is released.
A series of respiratory enzymes are involved to
3. Enzymes are not involved.
bring about the oxidation.
4. It is extra cellular. It is intracellular.
(b) Differences between respiration and combustion:

S. No. Respiration Combustion
1. It is a biochemical process. It is a chemical process.
2. It takes place at normal temperature. It takes place at high temperature.
Respiration is a slow process completed in
Combustion is fast process in which the energy
several steps. Thus, the energy is also
3. is liberated only in one step resulting in
liberated in several steps and remain stored in
increase in temperature and production of fire.
the form of ATP.
4. A series of respiratory enzymes are involved. No enzymes are involved.
(c) Types of Respiration :

(i) Aerobic : When oxidation of food takes place in presence of oxygen.
Food ⎯Glycolysis
⎯⎯⎯→ Pyruvic acid
Incytoplasm
9 9
Inpresenceof O2
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
Krebcyclein mitochondria
It is called as Aerobic respiration.
(ii) Anaerobic respiration : When oxidation of food material does not require oxygen or it occurs in
absence of oxygen, it is called as Anaerobic Respiration.
In yeast
2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP
Food Pyruvic (During fermentation)
In muscles
acid Lactic acid + 2ATP
(During vigorous exercise)
Difference between aerobic & anaerobic respiration :

S. No. Aerobic Anaerobic
It occurs in bacteria, certain fungi, germinating
1. It occurs in all living cells of higher plants.
seeds, fleshy fruits and muscle cells.
2. It requires oxygen. Oxygen is not required.
The end products are alcohol & CO2 or lactic
3. The end products are CO2 and H2O.
acid.
The oxidation of one molecules of glucose The number of ATP molecules produced is
4.
produces 38 ATP molecules. only 2 ATP.
All the reactions except the reactions of
5. All the reactions take place in cytoplasm.
glycolysis take place inside mitochondria.
Organic compounds are completely
Organic compounds are incompletely oxidized
6. oxidized and high amount of energy is
and very small amount of energy.
released.
7. Non toxic to higher organisms. Toxic to higher organisms.
(d) Step of respiration :

(i) External respiration : Exchange of gases between an organism and its environment.
(ii) Internal respiration : Exchange of gases between tissue cells and extracellular environment.
(iii) Cellular respiration : Involves oxidation of food along with release of energy, inside cell.
➢ RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
Respiration in animals takes place as a single unit, they have different types of organs for respiration due to
which mode of respiration also varies according to the organism but the basic mechanism is same.
10 10
− Mastery Point
S. No. Animals Type of Respiration Diagram
Diffusion : Exchange of gases takes

1. Amoeba (Protozoa)
place through general body surface.
Moist skin
Cutaneous Respiration : Exchange of
2. Earthworm (Annelida)
gases occur through moist skin.
Gill cover
Eyes
Branchial Respiration : Exchange of Nostril
Gill arch
3. Fish (Pisces) Mouth
gases through gills.
Tracheal Respiration : Exchange of

4. Grasshopper (Arthropoda)
gases through spiracles.
11 11
− Mastery Point
 The structure and function of fish gills :
 A fish continuously pumps water through its mouth and over gill arches, using coordinated movements of the
jaws and operculum (gill cover). (A swimming fish can simply open its mouth and let water flow past its gills.)
Each gill arch has two rows of gill filaments, composed of flattened plates called lamellae. Blood flowing through
capillaries within the lamellae picks up O2 from the water. Notice that the countercurrent flow of water and blood
maintains a partial pressure gradient that drives the net diffusion of O 2 from the water into the blood over the
entire length of a capillary.
 A tracheal system.
Some important characteristics of respiratory organs of animals are :

• They have large surface area to get enough oxygen.
• They have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of gases.
• They have rich blood supply for transport of respiratory gases.
12 12
➢ RESPIRATION IN HUMANS
(i) Human respiratory tract :
I. External nostrils : First part of respiratory system. It opens into nasal cavity and is meant for
inhalation of air from outside.
Figure : HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
II. Nasal cavity : This cavity is separated from oral cavity by means of a hard and bony palate.
It is lined by Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells which are rich in mucus, it brings
about warming, moistening and sterilization of air. It contains hair and mucus which entrap the dust
particles.
III. Internal nares : Nasal cavity opens into it and it leads to pharynx.
IV. Pharynx : It is a common part between both alimentary canal and respiratory system.
V. Larynx : It is an enlarged, upper part of trachea which is also called as ‘voice box’. It produces
voice by passage of air between vocal cords. It contains three different types of cartilages. Among
them a ‘c’ shaped thyroid cartilage protruding out in neck region is called Adam’s Apple.
Can you think why ?

• Why C-shaped rings are present on Trachea ?

Fig. : Bronchial intercom inside lung
13 13
VI. Trachea : It is also called wind pipe. It is 10-12 cm long tube. It’s walls are supported by 16 – 20
‘c’ shaped cartilagenous rings which prevent them to collapse when air is absent in them.
VII. Bronchi : Trachea is branched into two bronchi left and right each of which enters into the lungs.
VIII. Lungs : The lungs occupy the greater part of the thoracic cavity. Surrounding each lung is a
double-walled sac within the walls of which lies the pleural cavity. The right lung is divided into
three lobes and left into two. Inside the lung, each bronchus divides into numerous bronchioles,
each of which terminates into an elongated saccule, the alveolar duct, which bears on its surface air
sacs or alveoli.
The number of alveoli in the human lungs has been estimated to be approximately 300 million.
The lungs are covered by a thin double layer of simple squamous epithelium called the pleura.
The outer or parietal pleuron remains attached to the wall of thoracic cavity.
The space between the two pleural membranes contains pleural fluid for reducing function and
makes the movement of lung easy. Inflammation of the pleura causes a disease called pleurisy.
Lungs are pink at birth, they become dark grey and mottled in adults due to deposition of
carbonaceous materials.
Darkening increases in smokers and persons exposed to pollutants. The right lung is shorter by
about 2.5 cm due to raised position of diaphragm on the right side to accommodate liver.
The left lung is longer. It is, however, narrower than the right lung because it contains a cardiac
notch for accommodating asymmetrically placed heart. Left lung is divisible by an oblique fissure
into two lobes. Right lung has two fissures, horizontal and oblique. They divide the right lung into
three lobes.
IX. Diaphragm: It is a sheet of muscles that lies below the lungs and separates thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity.
X. Intercostal Muscles : Intercostal muscles are several groups of muscles that run between the ribs,
and are mainly involved in the mechanical aspect of breathing. These are of 2 types:
1. External Intercostal muscles - Assist in the process of inspiration.
2. Internal Intercostal muscles - These are not involved in the process of normal breathing.
They help in the process of forceful breathing.
XI. Thoracic Cage: Lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air tight
chamber.
• The thoracic chamber is formed.
• Dorsally by vertebral column.
• Ventrally by sternum.
• Laterally by ribs.
• On the lower side by dome shaped diaphragm
Respiratory System of man
14 14
15 15
− Mastery Point
 Vocal cord : In larynx, 2 pairs of vocal cord is found outer pair is false vocal cord where as, inner pair is
true vocal cord when air is forced through the larynx it cause vibration of true vocal cords and sound is
produced.
 Trachea & nasal cavity are lined by pseudo stratified ciliated columnar glandular epithelium.
 Epiglottis : It prevents the entry of food into the trachea.
 Left lung is smaller than right lung due to the presence of cardiac notch at left side.
 Step of respiration :
(A) Breathing
(B) Transportation of gases
(C) Cellular respiration
A. Breathing :
(i) Inspiration : Intercostal and Phrenic muscles of diaphragm contract to increase the volume of thoracic
cavity, therefore outside air rushes inside.
(ii) Expiration: Intercostal & Phrenic muscles relax. Due to decrease in volume of thoracic cavity air
pressure within lungs increase, the greater pressure within lungs causes forceful expiration of air from
lungs to outside of body.
B. Transportation of gases: Gaseous exchange occur in Alveoli following diffusion of pressure gradient that
causes diffusion of O2 from high pressure in alveoli into blood & CO2 from blood into alveoli.
Fig.: Transportation of gases
(i) Transport of oxygen: There are two ways for oxygen transport. As much as 97 per cent of the oxygen
is transported from the lungs to the tissues in combination with haemoglobin and only 3 percent is
transported in dissolved condition by the plasma. 100 ml of blood can carry upto 20 ml of O2.
16 16
(ii) Transport of Carbon dioxide: Carbon-dioxide is transported from the tissues to the lungs by three
methods. When a respiring tissue releases carbon-dioxide, it is first diffused in the blood. From here it
diffuses into the red blood cells. About 23% of carbon dioxide entering into the erythrocytes combines
with the globin (protein) part of haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin, which is transported to
the lungs. About 70% of carbon-dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonates dissolved in water.
Only 7% is transported in dissolved form in plasma.
Fig. : Transport of Carbon dioxide & Oxygen
C. Cellular respiration : It refers to the oxidation of food taking place inside the cell. As this process is at
cellular level so it is called cellular respiration. It takes place in three steps :
(i) Glycolysis
(ii) Kreb Cycle
(iii) Electron Transport System
Carbohydrates
During
digestion
Glucose
Glycolysis
Pyruvic acid
in absence of O2 in presence of O2
Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration

C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP Kreb Cycle
CO 2 + H 2O + 38ATP
(A) Glycolysis : Glycolysis also called EMP (Embden Meyerhof Parnas) pathway :
Site: Cytoplasm of cell.
(i) In this cycle glucose is converted into pyruvic acid in presence of many enzymes and co-enzymes.
(ii) Oxygen is not required during glycolysis.
(iii) 1 molecule of glucose gives rise to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
(iv) In this process 4 molecules of ATP are formed, among them 2 ATP molecules are utilized thus there is a
net gain of 2 ATP molecules.
17 17
(v) 2 NAD molecules are reduced to 2 NADH2, which later produces 6ATP molecules.
(vi) Net production of ATP in glycolysis is 2ATP + 6ATP = 8 ATP.

(vii) There is no production of CO2 during this process.
Mind it: After glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-A with the release of CO2 and the
process is called as ‘oxidative decarboxylation’. It occurs in mitochondria of the cell. Besides this
2 NAD molecules are reduced to 2 NADH2, which later produces 6ATP molecules.
(B) Kreb’s Cycle :

Site : Mitochondria of cell
(i) Also called aerobic oxidation.
(ii) Discovered by Sir Hans Kreb.
(iii) Another name TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or Citric acid cycle.
(iv) It brings about the conversion of pyruvic acid, fatty acids, fats and amino acids into CO 2 and water
by oxidation.
(v) It is the common path for oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
(vi) It starts with acetyl Co-A which is then converted into several intermediate compounds with the
release of ATP, hydrogen atoms (NADH2 and FADH2) and then Acetyl Co-A is regenerated back.
(vii) For each glucose molecule the Krebs’s cycle occurs twice, so produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH2 and
2 FADH2. Therefore it accounts for total 24 ATP molecules.
(C) Electron Transport System or ETS :

Site : Mitochondria of cell
(i) n this hydrogen atoms produced during oxidation of various intermediates during Glycolysis,
Oxidative- decarboxylation and Kreb cycle are first broken into protons and electrons.
(ii) These protons and electrons after passing through a series of coenzymes and cytochromes combine
with oxygen to form water molecules.
(iii) During these series of events 1 NADH2 releases 3ATP molecules and 1 FADH2 gives 2 ATP
molecules which were produced during Kreb cycle and glycolysis.
• Mind it : The net gain of ATP molecules during respiration is 38ATP molecules among them:
(A) 8ATP from glycolysis
(B) 6 ATP from conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl Co-A.
(C) 24 ATP from Krebs cycle
• Besides this CO2 and H2O are also released.
➢ CONTROL OF BREATHING IN HUMAN
18 18
The neurons mainly responsible for regulating breathing are in the medulla oblongata, near the base of the
brain. Neural circuits in the medulla form a breathing control center that establishes the breathing rhythm.
• When you breathe deeply, a negative-feedback mechanism prevents the lungs from over expanding.
During inhalation, sensors that detect stretching of the lung tissue send nerve impulses to the control
circuits in the medulla, inhibiting further inhalation.
• In regulating breathing, the medulla uses the pH of the surrounding tissue fluid as an indicator of blood
CO2 concentration. The reason pH can be used in this way is that blood CO2 is the main determinant of
the pH of cerebrospinal fluid, the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the cerebrospinal fluid, where it reacts with water and forms
–
carbonic acid (H2CO3). The H2CO3 can then dissociate into a bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ) and a hydrogen
ion (H+ ):
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3– + H+
Increased metabolic activity, such as occurs during exercise, lowers pH by increasing the concentration
of CO2 in the blood.
Sensors in blood vessels and the medulla detect this pH change. In response, the medulla’s control
circuits increase the depth and rate of breathing. Both remain high until the excess CO 2 is eliminated in
exhaled air and pH returns to a normal value.
 Dissociation curve for haemoglobin :
19 19
(b) pH and haemoglobin dissociation: Because hydrogen ions affect the shape of haemoglobin, a drop in
pH shifts the O2 dissociation curve towards the right (the Bohr shift). At a given PO2, say 40 mm Hg,
haemoglobin gives up more O2 at pH 7.2 than at pH 7.4, the normal pH of human blood. The pH
decreases in very active tissues because the CO2 produced by cellular respiration reacts with water,
forming carbonic acid. Haemoglobin then releases more O2, which supports the increased cellular
respiration in the active tissues.
SOME RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

Emphysema It occurs due to infection, smoking etc. It occurs due to obstructions in bronchioles caused by
breaking of alveolar septa. Bronchodilators and O2 therapy are used, for curing this disease.
Asthma Air passages are narrowed and lead to obstruction in breathing.
Pneumonia Lymph and mucus accumulate in alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to bacterial and viral
infection.
Bronchitis Swelling in living membranes of respiratory tract due to excessive smoking.
Tuberculosis Bacterial infection in lungs.
Pleurisy Inflammation of lung membrane called as pleurisy.
20 20
− Mastery Point
 Forceful respiration is controlled by Pons.
 The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per minute.
 Tidal Volume : Volume of air inspired or expired with each normal breathing.
 Residual volume : It is the volume of air left in the whole respiratory tract after forceful expiration. It is 1.2
liters.
 The deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
resulting in breathing problems, tiredness and lack of energy.
 Carbon Monoxide effect : Carbon monoxide binds very strongly with haemoglobin in the blood and
prevents it from carrying oxygen to the brain and other parts of the body. The resulting deficiency of oxygen
causes headache, dizziness, nausea and even death.
 Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud closure of glottis causes Hiccup.
 Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth and nose is called Sneezing.
 Mountain Sickness : In order to oxygenate the body effectively, breathing rate (even while at rest) has to be
increase in the blood, but not to sea level concentrations. The fail in oxygenation of blood produces the
symptoms of mountain sickness. These symptoms include breathlessness. Headache, dizziness, nausea,
vomiting, mental fatigue and a bluish tinge on the skin, nails and lips.
Can you think why ?

• Why is breathing rate increased during physical exercise ?
− Mastery Point
 Respiratory distress syndromes
• Experiment :
Few scientists at Harvard University Medical School, wondered whether a lack of surfactant caused
respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in preterm infants. She obtained autopsy samples of lungs from infants
that had died of RDS and from infants that had died of other causes. She extracted material from the samples
and allowed it to form a film on a water surface. Then Dr. Avery measured the tension (in dynes per
centimeter) across the surface of the water and recorded the lowest surface tension observed for each sample.
• Result :
• Conclusion:
The lungs of infants with a body mass over 1,200 g (2.7 pounds) contain a substance that reduces surface
tension. That substance is absent in the lungs of infants with RDS.
 Breathing in birds
• Two cycles of inhalation and exhalation are required to pass one breath through the system:
1. First inhalation: Air fills the posterior air sacs.
2. First exhalation: Posterior air sacs contract, pushing air into lungs.
3. Second inhalation: Air passes through lungs and fills anterior air sacs.
4. Second exhalation: As anterior air sacs contract, air that entered body at first inhalation is pushed out of body.
3. TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS
21 21
(a) Types of circulatory system: Among animals two types of circulatory systems are found:
(i) Open circulatory system (ii) Closed circulatory system
− Concept Boosters
 In an open circulatory system, such as that of a grasshopper, hemolymph surrounding body tissues also act as
the circulatory fluid.
22 22
 In a closed circulatory system, such as that of a earthworm, interstitial fluid surrounding body tissues is distinct
from blood acting as the circulatory fluid.
 Examples of circulatory schemes.

(a) Single circulation: fish
23 23
 Bony fishes, rays, and shark have a single circuit of blood flow and a single circulatory pump – a heart
with two chambers.
(b) Double circulation: amphibian
(c) Double circulation: reptiles
24 24
(d) Double circulation: mammal and birds
 Amphibians, reptiles, and mammals have two circuits of blood flow and two pumps fused into a multi-
chambered heart. Note that circulatory system are depicted as if the animal is facing you. The right side
of the heat is shown on the left, and vice versa.
(b) Transportation in humans: In humans there is a circulatory system (Closed circulatory system) that
uses blood or lymph as carriers of materials (fluid exchange medium) and the heart as the pumping
organ to help in circulation. Circulatory system consists of blood vascular system (blood as carrier) and
lymphatic system (lymph as carrier).
(i) Blood Vascular System: The higher multicellular animals with higher metabolic rates possess a
well developed blood vascular system. This system helps in the quicker supply of nutrients and
oxygen to the body tissues and also in the rapid disposal of toxic waste materials and carbon
dioxide. The blood acts as the circulatory fluid. Blood vascular system consists of blood, blood
vessels and heart.
I. Blood: The blood is a specialized kind of living connective tissue which is made to circulate, by the
muscular pumping organ called as heart. In adult human beings there is 5.5 to 6 liter of blood. The
blood consists of fluid part (the plasma) and blood corpuscles. The red blood corpuscles (RBCs),
white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and blood platelets are present in the plasma. The
formation of blood is called “Haemopoiesis”.
1. Plasma: The plasma consists of water (90% & above) inorganic and organic substances.
In the plasma, RBCs, WBCs and blood platelets float. inorganic salts (0.9%) are also present.
The organic substances are glucose, amino acids, proteins, hormones, digested and waste excretory
products.
The blood proteins (7%) are fibrinogen, albumin, globulin and prothrombin.
25 25
• Mind it: Serum is plasma from which fibrinogen is removed.(Plasma–Fibrinogen = Serum.)
2. Blood Corpuscles:
• Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) or Erythrocytes: The number of RBCs is about 5.5 million per
mm3 of blood. The total number of RBC is about 30 billion. Each RBC is a biconcave disc-like
structure devoid of nucleus. The mammalian erythrocytes do not possess nuclei, mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum. The erythrocytes contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin consists of globin
(protein) and Fe2+ porphyrin complex (haem). 100 ml of blood contains 15 g of haemoglobin.
If the amount of haemoglobin in blood is less, the person suffers from anaemia. The haemoglobin
carries oxygen to the different cells of the body and brings carbon dioxide from the cells. The life
span of a RBC is 120 days.
• White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs) or Leucocytes: The number of leucocytes is comparatively
fewer i.e. 1mm3 of blood contains 5000 – 10000 leucocytes in humans. The total number of WBCs
is about 75 millions. The number of leucocytes increases in infections like pneumonia, blood
cancer (Leukemia) etc. These are large in size and contain nucleus. White blood corpuscles are of
two types:
• Granulocytes: Contains granules in the cytoplasm. They are of three types: Eosinophils, Basophils
and Neutrophils.
• Agranulocytes: Monocytes and lymphocytes are two different types of agranulocytes.
Lymphocytes secrete antibodies which destroy microbes. The monocytes are phagocytic in nature.
Flow Chart
26 26
Fig.: Different types of Blood Corpuscles
• Blood platelets: These are small and without nuclei. Their number varies from 0.15 to 0.45 million
per mm3 of blood. Their normal life span is one week. These help in blood clotting at the site of
injury by liberating thromboplastin.
3. Functions of Blood: Blood performs the following functions:

• Transportation of nutrients: The digested and absorbed nutrients like glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids are first transported to the liver and then to all the tissues for their storage, oxidation and
synthesis of new substances.
• Transportation of respiratory gases: The respiratory gases (oxygen, carbon-dioxide) are
transported by the blood. Oxygen is transported from the respiratory surface (lung, skin and buccal
cavity) to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues is taken to the respiratory organ for its
removal.
• Transportation of excretory products: Different wastes from the different parts of the body are
collected by the blood and then taken to the organs (kidneys, lungs, skin and intestine) from where
they are excreted.
• Transportation of hormones: Hormones are produced by endocrine glands. These hormones have
target organs (place to act). These are carried by the plasma of blood and bring about
the coordination in the working of the body.
• Maintenance of pH: The plasma proteins act as buffer system and maintains required pH of
the body tissues.
• Regulation of body temperature: The blood flows in all the parts of body, so it equalizes
the body temperature. It carries heat from one place to another place in the body.
• Transportation of metabolic intermediates: The blood carries metabolic intermediates from one
tissue to another for further metabolism. In the muscle cells due to anaerobic respiration lactic acid
is produced. This lactic acid is carried to the liver for further oxidation.
• Water balance: The blood maintains water balance to constant level by distributing it uniformly in
the body.
• Protection from diseases: The WBCs (neutrophils and monocytes) engulf the bacteria and other
disease causing organisms by phagocytosis. The B- lymphocytes produce antibodies to neutralize
the action of toxins produced by pathogens.
• Clotting of blood: Blood forms a clot at the site of injury and thus prevents the further loss of
blood.
• Support. Blood flows under pressure in arteries. Due to this tissue become stiff as in the case of
erection of nipples, clitoris and penis.
27 27
4. Blood Clotting:
• At the site of injury of the blood vessels, the platelets induce blood coagulation through the release
of thromboplastin (thrombokinase).
• Thromboplastin changes prothrombin of blood plasma into thrombin.
• Thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.
• Fibrin forms a network which entangles RBCs and blood platelets to form plug or clot over
the injured area.
• Blood clotting is usually completed within 2-3 minutes.
Injured tissue + Blood platelets ⎯⎯ → Thromboplastin released
Thromboplastin
Prothrombin ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Ca++
→ Thrombin
Thrombin
Fibrinogen ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Fibrin
(Soluble) (Insoluble)
Fibrin + Red blood corpuscles ⎯⎯ → Clot of blood
5. Blood Groups:
• Landsteiner discovered that blood of different individuals did not match each other but there were
biochemical differences.
• He discovered Antigens A and B and blood groups (ABO systems).
• Antigen (agglutinogen) is a glycoprotein present on RBCs. For each antigen there is a
corresponding antibody.
• Thus there are two antibodies (agglutinin) a and b occurring in the blood plasma. There are four
types of blood groups depending on the presence or absence of these antigens.
• Blood is a life saving fluid. It is often needed during accident and operation. The transfusion of
blood is only done when blood group is known. These groups are A, B, AB and O.
• Blood of O group is a universal donor i.e. it can donate blood to any group (A, AB, B and O) but it
can receive blood from O blood group.
• AB group is a universal recipient (receiver). It can receive blood from any group (A, B, AB, and O)
but it can donate to AB group only.
6. Blood Transfusion: The transfusion of blood from a healthy person to a patient suffering from
blood loss due to injury or surgical operation is called as “blood transfusion”.
• For this all major hospitals have blood banks where blood is collected from voluntary and
professional donors. Before preservation the blood is tested for its blood group and Rh factor.
• Though theoretically a patient may be able to receive blood of two or more types, it is always
advisable to have the donor blood of the same group as that of the recipient.
• The blood of donor is always cross matched before transfusion to exclude any chance of
incompatibility. When blood from a donor is added to blood of the recipient, it is necessary to avoid
bringing together corresponding antigen and antibody. This causes clumping of RBCs.
28 28
• Thus antigen A in RBCs of group A individuals reacts with antibodies of plasma of group B
individuals. This phenomenon is called “agglutination”.
✓ Compatible
 Incompatible
• Rh factor: Rh factor is also a type of antigen found on RBCs. Rh factor (in blood) can be
genetically determined. Most of the people (more than 85%) are Rh-positive (Rh+) while a few are
Rh negative (Rh–). Both people lead normal life. If an Rh– woman marries with an Rh+ man then Ist
pregnancy is normal but in 2nd pregnancy the mother with Rh– blood may lose the baby due to
incompatibility of Rh factor. This is known as Erythroblastosis foetalis. By new techniques and
procedures, now the child can be saved.
II. Blood Vessels: These are hollow tubes through which the blood flows.
1. Arteries: These are thick walled and deep seated blood vessels which generally carry
the oxygenated blood away from the heart to various body parts.
2. Veins: These are thin walled and superficially located blood vessels which generally carry
deoxygenated blood from the body parts to heart.
3. Capillaries: These are thinnest blood vessels and connect the branches of arteries and veins which
make the diffusion of various substances possible.
III. Heart:
• Heart is a hollow muscular organ that lies obliquely in the thoracic region in a cavity between the
two lungs that is pericardial cavity. It is lined by 2 layers outer and inner pericardial membranes.
These are filled with a fluid called “pericardial fluid”. It protects the heart from shock and injury.
• Note: Heart is 2 chambered in fishes (Venous heart), 3 chambered in amphibians, incompletely
4 chambered in reptiles and 4 chambered in birds and mammals.
• Heart is made up of 4 chambers: upper 2 chambers are auricles/atrium and the lower 2 chambers
are ventricles. Auricles are the receiving chambers and ventricles are the pumping chambers.
Walls of ventricles are thicker as they have to pump the blood.
29 29
• Partition between right and left auricle is called “interauricular septum” and between right and
left ventricles is “inter ventricular septum”.
Fig.: Structure of Heart
• Four pulmonary veins enter into left auricle, two from each lung bring oxygenated blood.
There is one auriculoventricular aperture with a bicuspid or mitral valve in left auricles which
opens into left ventricle.
• Left ventricle has aortic valve having 3 semilunar cusps for large artery i.e. dorsal aorta which takes
the oxygenated blood to all body parts.
• Right auricle has openings for superior venacava that brings deoxygenated blood from head, neck
and upper limbs, inferior venacava receives deoxygenated blood from rest of the body and lower
limbs. A coronary sinus that drains venous blood from heart muscles into right auricle. Blood enters
in to right ventricle through tricuspid valve.
• Right ventricle has pulmonary valve having 3 semilunar cusps for pulmonary artery carrying
deoxygenated blood to lungs.
• Note: During foetal condition a flap valve called “foramen o vale” is present at interauricular
septum after birth this foramen closes remain as a depression called as fossa ovalis. If it remains
after birth it results “a hole in the heart”.
IV. Types of circulation:

1. Single circulation: In this, blood passes once through the heart to supply once to the body.
It is found in fishes which have two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
2. Double circulation: In double circulation, the blood passes twice through the heart to supply once
to the body.
• Double circulation involves two circulations:
• Systemic circulation: Blood completes its circulation from left ventricle to right auricle through
the body organs.
• Pulmonary circulation: Blood completes its circulation from right ventricle to left auricle through
the lungs.
30 30
Fig.: Double blood circulation
V. Cardiac Cycle:
• The serial wise or sequential changes which take place in the heart are called cardiac-cycle.
• The contraction of the auricles is termed as auricular systole or atrial-systole, and their relaxation is
called atrial-diastole.
• Same way the contraction and relaxation of ventricles is termed as ventricular systole and
ventricular diastole.
• The time of cardiac-cycle is the reverse ratio of heart beat per minute. If heart beat per minute is 72,
then the time of cardiac-cycle is 60/72 = 0.8 seconds.
• Cardiac Events:
• Following events are related to the Cardiac-cycle-
Outer circle → Auricles – Systole
Inner circle → Ventricles – Diastole
Fig.: Common diagram showing events of both auricles & Ventricles
• In a single cardiac cycle of man -

1. Auricular systole = 0.1 sec
2. Auricular diastole = 0.7 sec
3. Ventricular systole = 0.3 sec
4. Ventricular diastole = 0.5 sec
1. “Ventricular-systole”- It is an important process because during it the blood is pumped out of

the heart into the arteries.
• Walls of the ventricles start contracting, due to which pressure is more in the ventricles. Due to
the increase of this pressure the “Cuspid valves” close producing “LUBB” sound.
31 31
• During ventricular systole, the auricles receive blood from the veins.
2. “Ventricular Diastole”- Ventricles start relaxing now due to which pressure inside them falls
further. As a result of this, closure of semilunar valves occurs due to which ‘DUP’ sound is heard at
the onset of ventricular diastole.
3. “Auricle-Systole” – Due to contraction in the auricles the remaining blood comes into
the ventricles so the atrial pressure now becomes zero.
4. “Auricle-Diastole” – Auricle start relaxing now. Due to the presence of almost zero pressure in
the auricles, during diastole the auricles start receiving further blood from the veins.
• Joint Diastole 0.8 – 0.4 = 0.4 sec. (Period during which entire heart is in Diastole)
• Cardiac output it is the amount of blood pumped by the each ventricle per minute. Its value in a
normal adult is about 5 liter/minute.
Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate.
• Heart Sounds:
• The first sound “LUBB” is produced when the atrio-ventricular valves get closed sharply at
the start of ventricular systole.
• The second sound “DUPP” is produced when at the beginning of ventricular diastole, the semilunar
valves at the roots of aorta and pulmonary artery get closed.
VI. Blood Pressure: It is the pressure of the flow of blood in the aorta and its main arteries.
The blood pressure varies according to the contraction and relaxation of the heart. In the condition
of contraction or systolic phase (Lubb sound) it is about 120 mm of Hg. This is called “systolic
pressure”. In the relaxation or diastolic phase (Dupp sound) it is about 80 mm of Hg and is called
“diastolic pressure”. The normal blood pressure of man (20 years) is 120/80. Fats and anxiety
increases the blood pressure. The maximum normal blood pressure (systolic) should not exceed 150
in males and 140 in females. The blood pressure is measured by “Sphygmomanometer”.
• Detection of Normal functioning of Heart: The muscle fibres of heart are specialized at certain
parts called sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker) that generate tiny electrical currents which
cause the normal heart beats. The “electrocardiograph” (E.C.G.) is the device to record these
electrical changes. Electrocardiogram is a record of electrical behaviour of heart and remains
constant in a normal man. Doctors use the E.C.G. for detection of various heart diseases.
Sometimes the sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker) gets damaged and fails to generate cardiac
impulses at normal rate. It becomes abnormally slow and irregular and ventricles fail to pump
the required amount of blood. It can be corrected by the surgical grafting of an artificial
pacemaker instrument in the chest of the patient. This instrument stimulates the heart electrically
at regular intervals to maintain the beats.
VII. Electrocardiogram (ECG)

32 32
• It is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a single cardiac cycle.
• The electrocardiogram is obtained by a machine known as electrocardiograph. The study or
the process of recording of electrocardiogram is called electrocardiography.
• The impulse generated by the SA node causes contraction and relaxation of heart chambers.
To obtain an ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (i. e., one to
each wrist and one to the left ankle), monitoring the activity of heart continuously and heart’s
functioning is evaluated by attaching multiple leads to the chest region.
• Reading an ECG
• An ECG consists of five peak, identified with the letter P to T that corresponds to a specific
electrical conductivity of the heart. These corresponds to a specific electrical activity of the heart as
follows:
Fig.: Diagrammatic representation of a standard ECG
• P-Wave:
• It is the first and the foremost wave of low amplitude. It represents the electrical excitation or
depolarisation of the atria which leads to contraction of both the atria.
• QRS-Wave or Complex:
• The Q, R and S wave together forms the QRS complex. This represents the depolarisation of
the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular contraction.
• It marks the spread of impulse from AV node to ventricles, through bundle of His and Purkinje
fibres. The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of the systole.
• T-Wave:
• It is a broad and smoothly rounded deflection, which represents the return of the ventricles from
excited to normal state (repolarisation).
• The end of T-wave marks the end of systole. It has been observed that, by counting the number of
QRS complexes, that occur in a given time period, one can easily determine the rate of heartbeat of
an individual.
• However, the deviation in the ECG of any person from the normal shape ECG, indicates a possible
abnormality or a disease.
• Significance of ECG
• It gives accurate information about the normal functioning of atria and ventricles.
• Indicates the functioning of valves.
• Also helps in indicating any damage to local tissues of the heart in detection of overgrowth of
cardiac/heart chambers.
VIII. Regulation of Cardiac Activity:

• The normal activities of the heart are intrinsically regulated, i. e., autoregulated by the specialized
muscles, (nodal tissue). Thus, the heart is known as myogenic heart.
• The neurogenic heartbeat is initiated by a nerve impulse, e. g., annelids and most arthropods.
• The rate of its formation and conduction is regulated by the following
33 33
1. Neural Regulation:
• In medulla oblongata, a special neural centre is present, which can moderate, the cardiac function
through the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).
• The neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) increase the rate of heartbeat by
stimulating SA node, it also increases the strength of ventricular contraction and Hereby,
the cardiac output.
• Whereas, the neural signal through parasympathetic nerves (another component of ANS) can
decrease the rate of heartbeat by inhibiting the SA node, speed of conduction of action potential,
thereby decreasing the cardiac output.
2. Hormonal Regulation:
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones secreted by the medulla of adrenal gland has significant
role in regulating heartbeat and thus increasing the cardiac output. The nor-adrenaline accelerates
the heartbeat, while adrenaline does this function at the time of emergency.
IX. Disorders of circulatory system:

• Many diseases may affect the blood vessels and the normal functioning of the heart.
• Some of the common disorders are as follows
1. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): The pressure exerted by the flow of Blood on the elastic
walls of the arteries is known as blood pressure. Hypertension is the term used for blood pressure
higher than the normal. The normal blood pressure in humans is measured as 120/80 mm Hg
(millimeters of mercury pressure), Persistent increase in Blood pressure above 140 mmHg
(systolic) and 90 mmHg (diastolic) is termed as hypertension. Condition of Hypertension may lead
to many heart diseases and also affects vital organs of the body, like the brain and kidney.
2. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): It is the hardening of arteries and arterioles due to
the thickening of the fibres tissue and the consequent loss of elasticity. It is often referred to as
atherosclerosis. This mainly affects the vessels, which are mainly responsible for supplying blood
to the heart muscle. It seems to occur due to deposition of calcium, far cholesterol and fibrous
tissues, making the lumen of arteries narrower.
3. Angina (Angina Pectoris): This tends to occur when enough oxygen does not reach the heart
muscles. It occurs both in men and women of any age but seems to be more common among
the middle-aged and elderly individual. A symptom of acute chest pain occurs in individual
suffering from angina, which mainly occurs due to the conditions that affect the blood flow.
4. Heart Failure: It is the condition of the heart when it fails to pump blood effectively to meet
the needs of the body. The heart failure is sometimes called the congestive heart failure, as its main
symptom is congestion of lungs.
5. Bradycardia and Tachycardia: Tachycardia is a term applied to a rapid heart or pulse rate
(over l00/ mins) Bradycardia is the term indicating a slow heart or pulse rate (under 50/min).
Mastery Point:
 Portal System
• When the vein of any organ of the body does not open in the caval vein or heart but it divides into
capillaries in any other organ and its blood is transported by vein of that other organs to the heart,
then this type of system is termed as portal system.
34 34
• It is of following types:-
(i) Renal portal system
(ii) Hepatic portal system
(iii) Hypophysial portal system
• In mammals, renal portal system is absent.
• In Frog both the portal systems; renal portal system and hepatic portal system are present.
(ii) Lymphatic System:
• The lymphatic system comprises the lymph, lymphatic capillaries (simply lymphatics), lymphatic
vessels and nodes.
• Lymph serves as the middle man between the blood and organ for exchange of any material.
• The lymph is the tissue fluid present in the intercellular spaces in the tissues. So it is also called as
“extracellular fluid”.
• The lymph resembles the blood except that the lymph is devoid of R.B.Cs, blood platelets and some
plasma proteins.
• Lymphatic system runs parallel to the veins.
• The lymphatic capillaries are present in the form of network under epithelial surface .The ends of
lymphatic capillaries are blind.
• The lymphatic capillaries unite to form lymphatic vessels and these vessels resemble with the veins.
The lymphatic vessels possess the valves which prevent back flow of lymph. Neighboring body
muscles help in the flow of lymph. The small lymphatic vessels unite to form large vessels.
• Larger lymphatic vessels unite to form large ducts i.e. right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct.
Right lymphatic duct opens into right subclavian vein and left thoracic duct opens in to left
subclavian vein. Before the lymph reaches the blood, it always passes through the lymph nodes.
• The lymph nodes are enlargements of the lymphatic vessels. Lymphocytes and other plasma cells
are present in the lymph nodes. The lymph is cleaned or filtered by lymph nodes. These cells also
kill the germs and produce antibodies.
35 35
Fig.: Diagram of Human lymphatic system
• Functions of Lymph:
(i) It provides immunity through lymphocytes.
(ii) Fats are absorbed through lymph vessels in the intestine.
(iii) It supplies digested food and oxygen to various parts of the body.
(iv) It helps in removal of waste products like parts of dead cells.
(v) It returns proteins and excess tissue fluid to the blood from the tissue spaces.
Mastery Point:
 Spleen
• Spleen is known to be the largest lymph node of body. It is the blood bank of the body.
• Spleen is also called " Graveyard of RBC".
• Spleen originates from embryonal mesoderm.
• Spleen is red- coloured lymph node, it is found attached by mesentery to the lateral side of stomach.
It is the largest solid mass of reticule endothelial tissue in the body.
• It is covered by a capsule formed of elastic fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscles.
It is called splenic capsule.
 Functions of spleen:-
1. Its macrophages engulf or phagocytize and destroy worn-out blood cells, live or dead pathogens,
cell debris etc.
2. In the embryonal stage it produces RBCs.
3. Some antibodies are synthesised here.
4. In adult stage spleen works as blood bank. Its sinuses serve as reservoirs of blood when required
their blood is squeezed into circulation.
5. Spleen stores iron.
6. The size of spleen increases at the time of malaria because lymphocytes & dead RBC number is
increased in it at that time (splenomegaly).
36 36
4. EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
There are various metabolic activities which take place inside the living organisms. All these activities are
chemical reactions. As a result in animal body several end products are formed which are of no use to the cells.
These are called as metabolic wastes. These must be removed from the body for proper functioning of the
body. The elimination of these metabolic waste products from the body is called as excretion. Waste materials
are ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, pigments, salts, digestive wastes, excess of water etc. Ammonia,
urea, uric acid are waste nitrogenous products. The excretory products are both volatile & nonvolatile. These
are removed from the body by different methods.
Excretory Organs and Main Nitrogenous Wastes of Different Animal Groups

 (A) Osmoregulation in fish:
(i) Osmoregulation in marine fish
(ii) Osmoregulation in fresh water fish
37 37
 (B) Osmoregulation in marine birds:
Salt is transported from the blood into secretory tubules,

which drain into central ducts leading to the nostrils.
38 38
Table: Excretory Organs of Different Animal Groups
S. Animal Groups Excretory Organs
No.
1. Protozoans (e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium) Plasma membrane
2. Sponges (e.g. Sycon) Plasma membrane of each cell.
3. Cnidaria (e.g. Hydra) Plasma membrane of each cell.
4. Platyhelminthes (e.g. Planaria) Flame cell (Solenocytes).
5. Nemathelminthes (e.g. Ascaris) H-shaped excretory system of canals and renette cells.
6. Annelids (e.g. Neries, Earthworm) Nephridia; chloragogen cells (yellow cells) in earthworm.
7. Arthropods (a) Prawn (b) Most insects (c) Antennary/Green glands Malpighian tubules, Coxal
Scorpion and spiders glands, hepatopancreas and nephrocytes.
8. Mollusca (e.g. Unio, Pila) Kidney, In Unio kidneys are called organs of Bojanus.
9. Echinoderms (e.g., Starfish) Dermal branchiae and tube feet.
10. Hemichordates (e.g. Balanoglossus) Glomerulus.
Evolutionary variations in excretory system:
(i) Protonephridia:
The excretory system of flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) consists of units called Protonephridia
which form a network of dead-end tubules.
(ii) Metanephridia:
39 39
Most annelids, such as earthworms, have metanephridia (singular, metanephridium), excretory organs
that collect fluid directly from the coelom. Each segment of a worm has a pair of metanephridia,
which are immersed in coelomic fluid and enveloped by a capillary network. A ciliated funnel
surrounds the internal opening. As the cilia beat, fluid is drawn into a collecting tubule, which includes
a storage bladder that opens to the outside.
(iii) Malpighian tubules:
Insects and other terrestrial arthropods have organs called Malpighian tubules that remove nitrogenous
wastes and that also function in osmoregulation. The Malpighian tubules extend from dead-end tips
immersed in hemolymph (circulatory fluid) to openings into the digestive tract.
(iv) Kidney:
In vertebrates and some other chordates, a specialized organ called the kidney functions in both
osmoregulation and excretion. Like the excretory organs of most animal phyla, kidneys consist of
tubules. The numerous tubules of these compact organs are arranged in a highly organized manner and
are closely associated with a network of capillaries. The vertebrate excretory system also includes ducts
and other structures that carry urine from the tubules out of the kidney and, eventually, the body.
➢ HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
As a result of various metabolic processes going on in our body a number of waste products are formed.
These have to be eliminated as they are toxic to the body.
(a) Human Excretory Products:

(i) Carbon dioxide which is liberated during respiration; and is eliminated by the lungs.
(ii) Nitrogenous metabolic wastes, such as urea and uric acid produced in the liver from excessive
proteins.
(iii) Bile pigments: Bile pigments (e.g., bilirubin) derived by the breaking down of haemoglobin of the
erythrocytes, in liver.
(iv) Excess salts, water and vitamins: Concentration of these substances above the required level,
is harmful to the body.
(b) Human excretory System:

• The excretory system of man consists of two kidneys, two ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
(i) Kidney:
40 40
• The kidneys are reddish-brown bean shaped structures present in the upper part of the abdominal
cavity, on either side of the vertebral column.
• Each kidney is made up of large number of coiled tubes called nephrons (uriniferous or renal
tubules).
• These filter the nitrogenous waste materials and excess of water and salts from the blood and form
the urine.
(ii) Ureters: These are a pair of long, narrow, thin walled and tubular structure which starts from the
kidney, run downward and open in urinary bladder.
(iii) Urinary bladder: It is a thin walled, elastic, pear-shaped and distensible (able to swell) sac present
in lower part of abdomen.
• The urinary bladder stores the urine. When the muscles around the urinary bladder contract,
the urine is excreted out through a small opening called the urethra.
(iv) Urethra: It is muscular and tubular structure which extends from the urinary bladder to
the outside. It carries the urine to the outside.
Fig.: Excretory System of Human, L.S. of Kidney
(v) Nephrons: Structural and functional units of kidneys. Each kidney is made up of a millions of
nephrons. Structurally a nephron has following 5 parts:
41 41
Fig.: Structure of Nephron
1. Bowman’s capsule: It is a single-cell thick, double walled cup-shaped structure present in

the cortex region of the kidney. The cup-shaped capsule contains a network of capillaries called
Glomerulus. Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule are together called as Renal corpuscle/
Malphigian body.
2. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): It starts after the Bowman’s capsule and is greatly twisted.
The whole PCT lies in the cortex region.
3. Henle’s loop: Henle’s loop is a U-shaped tubule located in the medulla region. It consists of -
• A thin-walled descending limb in the medulla
• A thick-walled ascending limb in the medulla. Henle’s loop is long in those animals which pass
hypertonic urine.
4. Distal convoluted tubule: The ascending limb continues into the distal convoluted tubule which
forms several coils in the cortex.
5. Collecting duct: Collecting tubule receives distal tubules of several uriniferous tubules.
Several such tubules unite to form a large collecting duct. The collecting ducts are held together
and converge to form a pyramid. The pyramid opens into the pelvis which leads into the ureter.
(c) Mechanism of Urine formation:

• Main function of nephron is to form urine.
• There are three main processes involved in the urine formation:
(i) Glomerular ultrafiltration: The blood flows through the glomerulus under great pressure which is
much greater than in the capillaries elsewhere. The reason for this greater pressure is that
the efferent (outgoing) arteriole is narrower than the afferent (incoming) arteriole. This high
pressure (hydrostatic pressure) causes the liquid part of the blood to filter out from the glomerulus
into the renal tubule. This filtration under extraordinary force is called ultrafiltration.
• During ultrafiltration almost all the liquid part of the blood (plasma along with most of its organic
and inorganic substances including urea, glucose, amino acids, etc.) comes out of the glomerulus
and passes into the funnel shaped cavity of the Bowman's capsule.
• The fluid entering the renal tubule is called the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate consists
of water, urea, salts, glucose and other plasma solutes. The thicker part of the blood left behind in
the glomerulus after ultrafiltration, namely, the two kinds of corpuscles, proteins, and other large
molecules are carried forward through the efferent arteriole. Thus, the blood proceeding away from
the glomerulus is relatively thick.
• Effective Filteration Pressure (EFP)
• It is the net filteration pressure responsible for ultrafiltration.
EFP = GHP – [BCOP + CHP]
= 75 – [30+20]
= 25mmHg
= 10-25 mmHg
• Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure (GHP) - It develops due to difference in diameter of afferent
and efferent arterioles. It favors ultrafiltration. Diameter of afferent arteriole is more than that of
efferent arteriole.
• Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure (BCOP) - It is the osmotic pressure of blood which develops
due to presence of plasma proteins. It resists ultrafilteration.
• Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP) - It develops due to the glomerular filterate present in
Bowman’s Capsule. It resists ultrafilteration.
• Glomerular Filteration Rate (GFR) - It is the amount of filterate entering the Bowman’s capsule
per unit time.
• GFR = 125 ml./min. or 180 liters/day.
42 42
(ii) Tubular reabsorption: Glomerular filtrate contains a lot of useful materials like glucose, salts
such as that of sodium and water. These substances are reabsorbed from the renal tubule at various
levels and in varied proportions. But their reabsorption is only to the extent that the normal
concentration of the blood is not disturbed. This is called selective reabsorption.
(iii) Tubular secretion: During this process substances like creatinine, potassium (K +), hydrogen (H+),
NH4+, urea, foreign substance (pigments, drugs like penicillin) etc. are actively secreted into
different parts of nephron (PCT, Henle’s loop and DCT). This passage involves the activity of
the cells of the tubular wall, and hence it is called tubular secretion.
• All these processes involved in urine formation require energy, hence the oxygen demand of the
kidneys is 6 to 7 times higher than what is required by muscles.
(d) Urine excretion - Final urine passes into collecting ducts to the pelvis and through the ureter into the
urinary bladder by ureteral peristalsis (waves of constriction in the ureters) and due to gravity.
Urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra (in the penis in males, and directly in
females) by relaxation of the urinary bladder into sphincter muscles located at the opening of the
urinary bladder into the urethra under impulse from the nervous system. Such a process is called
micturition.
(e) Chemical Composition of Urine:

• Normal human urine consists of about 95% water and 5% of solid wastes.
• Besides the normal constituents, certain hormones and medicines like the antibiotics and excess
vitamins are passed out with urine.
• Organic compounds (gm/l): Urea – 2.3; Creatinine – 1.5; Uric acid – 0.7. Inorganic Compounds are
Ammonia – 0.6, NaCl, KCl.
• Normally a man excretes 1000-1750 ml of urine daily, depending upon the water intake, diet,
climate, mental state and physiological condition.
• Tea, coffee, alcohol and other beverages increase the formation of urine.
➢ HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION OF
THE KIDNEY
(A) Regulation by antidiuretic hormone:

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus monitor blood osmolarity via its effect on the net diffusion of water
into or out of the receptor cells. When blood osmolarity increases, signals from the osmoreceptors
trigger a release of ADH from the posterior pituitary, as well as thirst. Drinking water reduces blood
osmolarity, inhibiting further ADH secretion and thereby completing the feedback circuit.
43 43
(B) Regulation by RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System):
A second regulatory mechanism that helps maintain homeostasis by acting on the kidney is the renin-
angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS).
The RAAS involves the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA), a specialized tissue consisting of cells of and
around the afferent arteriole that supplies blood to the glomerulus. When blood pressure or blood
volume in the afferent arteriole drops (for instance, as a result of dehydration), the JGA releases
the enzyme renin. Renin initiates a sequence of chemical reactions that cleave a plasma protein called
angiotensinogen, ultimately yielding a peptide called angiotensin II.
44 44
➢ DIALYSIS
In case of loss or damage of one kidney, the other kidney performs the function of both the kidneys and
the person can lead to a normal life. But the failure of both the kidneys leads to death.
Artificial kidney is a dialysis machine which cleans blood of waste products, thus acting like a kidney.
The dialyser of a dialysis machine made of long tubes of selectively permeable membrane (like cellulose)
which are coiled in tank containing dialyzing solution. The dialysis solution contains water, glucose and salts in
similar concentration to those in normal blood. As the patient’s blood passes through the dialyzing solution,
most of the wastes like urea present in its pass through the selectively permeable cellulose tubes into
the dialyzing solution.
45 45
From artery
to pump
Tube system made of a
selectively permeable
membrane
Dialysing
From apparatus solution
to vein
Fresh dialyzing Used dialyzing

solution solution (with
urea excess salts)
− Mastery Point
 Kidney transplant: The best long term solution for kidney failure is the kidney transplant. The damaged
kidney is removed and a matching kidney donated by a healthy person is transplanted in its place by a
surgical operation.
46 46
(f) Role of other organs in excretion:
(i) Lungs: Carbon dioxide produced by the oxidation of glucose or other food substances in the tissues
is removed by the blood. This carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs through the blood vessels
(veins) where it diffuses into the alveoli and out through the respiratory tract. Water vapour in small
amount is also exhaled during expiration from the lungs.
(ii) Skin: Substances like soluble food matter, oxygen, water, dissolved mineral salts, traces of urea
and uric acid diffuse from the thin walls of capillaries into the walls of the sweat glands. Oxygen
and food substances are used for metabolic activities of the cells of sweat glands but the remaining
metabolic wastes are excreted out of the gland through the sweat duct which opens on the surface
of the skin through sweat pore. Sweat contains 99% water, traces of salts, urea and uric acid
However, after heavy exercise, lactic acid forms a major constituent of sweat. Profuse sweating
may lead to sodium deficiency, leading to muscle cramps. An adaptation of prevention of water
loss is the impermeability of our skin to water. However, in aquatic animals, skin is the major
excretory organ. They excrete ammonia through their skin by diffusion as ammonia is highly
soluble in water.
(g) Disorders of the excretory system:
Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to several disorders of the excretory system. Some of these are as
follows
(i) Uremia: It is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in the blood. Urea is highly harmful as it
poisons the cells at high concentration and may lead to kidney failure.
(ii) Kidney Failure (renal failure): Partial or total inability of kidneys to carry on excretory and salt-
water regulatory functions is called renal or kidney failure.
(iii) Renal Calculi: It is the formation of stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts
(calcium, magnesium, phosphates and oxalates, etc.), formed within the kidney.
(iv) Glomerulonephritis: It is the inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
• Polyurea – More urine passes out.
• Uremia – Urea concentration in blood increases.
• Alkaptonuria – Homogentisic acid passes with urine.
• Glycosuria – Glucose in urine.
• Anuria – Failure of kidney to form urine.
• Hematuria – Blood in urine.
• Albuminuria – Albumen in urine.
• Ketosis – Ketone bodies (Acetoacetic acid, b-Hydroxybutyric acid & Acetone) in urine.
• Dysuria – Painful urination.
• Diuresis – Increased volume of urine is excreted.
5. CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

• Animals receive external information through specialized structure called sense organs (receptors).
These are photoreceptors for light, phonoreceptors for sound and olfactoreceptors for smell. Control
and coordination is achieved by two systems
(a) Endocrine system (b) Nervous system
NSEJS
(a) Endocrine system :

• The branch of biology which deals with the study of endocrine system and its physiology is known
as " Endocrinology".
• ‘‘Thomas Addison’’ is known as father of Endocrinology.
• Co-ordination in the body of almost all the higher vertebrates is controlled by two systems Nervous
system and endocrine system.
• Substances secreted by these glands are known as hormones. The meaning of word ‘hormone’
in Greek is “to excite” = hormaein.
• It is a system of isolated glands that pour their secretion directly in to venous blood or lymph for
passage to different body organs, in order to control their functioning, metabolism, cell
permeability, growth, differentiation & stress conditions.
(i) Hormones :
• Secretin was 1st discovered hormone, discovered by Bayliss & Sterling.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced in
trace amounts and poured into blood, which carries it to some part of body, where it produces a
definite physiological effect.
Concept Boosters:
 Glands –
(1) Exocrine Glands – These are the glands, which drain out their secretion through a duct. Ex. – liver,
gastric glands, intestinal glands & sweat glands etc.
(2) Endocrine Glands – These are ductless, isolated glands, whose secretion reaches organs by means
of blood or lymph. Ex. – Thyroid, Parathyroid & Adrenal glands etc.
(3) Heterocrine Glands – These are mixed glands having both exocrine & endocrine parts. Ex. –
Pancreas.
 Chemical Nature of Hormones –

(1) Biogenic Amines (amino acid derivatives) –
• Thyroxin, Adrenaline & Nor-adrenaline & Melatonin.
(2) Proteinaceous –
• Hypothalamic hormones, ACTH, GH, MSH, Prolactin, Lipotropin, Oxytocin, Vasopressin,
Parathormone, Cacitonin, Insulin, Glucagon, Relaxin, Gastrointestinal hormones, Thymosin
(3) Glycoproteinaceous –
• TSH, FSH, LH, Erythropoietin.
(4) Steroids –
• Sex hormones & Adrenocorticoids.
NSEJS
(ii) Mechanism of Hormone action –

• Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called hormone
receptors located in the target tissues only.
• Hormone receptors present on the cell membrane of the target cells are called membrane-bound
receptors and the receptors present inside the target cell are called intracellular receptors, mostly
nuclear receptors (present in the nucleus).
• Binding of a hormone to its receptor leads to the formation of a hormone-receptor complex.
• Hormone-Receptor complex formation leads to certain biochemical changes in the target tissue.
Target tissue metabolism and hence physiological functions are regulated by hormones.
(iii) Endocrine Glands

[I] Hypothalamus –
• It is part of forebrain & appears as floor of diencephalon.
• It is formed of masses of grey matter, called hypothalamic nuclei, which contain neurosecretory
cells.
• These cells secrete neurohormones, which are stored in or regulate activity of pituitary gland.
❖ Neurohormones are of two types –

1. Releasing Hormones – These stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete its hormones. Ex. – TRH,
ARH, GRH, SRH, PRH & MSHRH.
2. Inhibitory Hormones – These stop anterior pituitary to secrete its hormone. Ex. – PIH, MSHIH &
Somatostatin.
[II] Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) –
• It is called as Master endocrine gland.
• It is smallest endocrine gland.
• It is attached to hypothalamus by a stalk, called as infundibulum.
• It consists of three lobes – anterior, middle & posterior lobes.
• In man middle lobe is not well developed.
Fig. : Diagrammatic representation of pituitary and its relationship with hypothalamus

NSEJS
❖ It is divided in to two parts –
1. Adenohypophysis –
❖ Hormones –
❖ Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) – glycoprotein.
• It controls functioning of thyroid gland.
❖ Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) – proteinous.
• It regulates structure & functioning of adrenal cortex.
❖ Growth Hormone (GH) or Somatotrophic Hormone (STH) or Somatotropin – proteinous.
• It brings about body growth by synthesis & deposition of proteins in tissues, retention of Calcium,
growth of long bones, growth of muscles, visceral organs & control of metabolism.
❖ Gonadotrophic Hormone (GTH) –
❖ Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – glycoprotein.
• It is also called as gametokinetic factor.
• In females, it stimulates development & maturation of ovarian follicles, producing egg cell &
female sex hormone – estrogen.
• In males, it induces spermatogenesis in testis.
❖ Leutinizing Hormone (LH) or Interstitial cell Stimulating hormone (ICSH) – glycoprotein.
• In females, it is called as LH & is involved in further development of egg cell & its release by
rupturing ovarian (graafian) follicle. It stimulates development of corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone hormone.
• In males, it is called as ICSH & stimulates secretion of testosterone hormone from Leydig’s cells of testis.
❖ Prolactin or Lactogenic Hormone or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH) – proteinous.

• It stimulates lactation, so it is also called as Maternity hormone.
• It stimulates growth of mammary glands during pregnancy.
❖ Intermedin or Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) – proteinous.

• It stimulates distribution & concentration of melanin pigment granules in epidermal cells of skin.
Concept Boosters:
 Disorders of anterior pituitary Gland -
(i) Dwarfism – It is due to hyposecretion of GH from childhood. It is characterized by smaller body
size (dwarf or midget), but intelligence & alertness are normal.
(ii) Gigantism – It is due to hypersecretion of GH from childhood. It is characterized by abnormal
elongation of long bones.
(iii) Acromegaly – It is due to hypersecretion of GH after attainment of full skeletal growth.
It is characterized by abnormal growth of hands, feet & face.
 Posterior Pituitary or Neurohypophysis –

• It does not synthesize any hormone, it only stores & releases two hormones, which are synthesized in
specialized nuclei (Supra-optic & paraventricular nuclei) of hypothalamus. So it is a storage gland.
• Secretion of both hormones is controlled by signals from hypothalamus.
 Hormones -
Oxytocin (Pitocin) – proteinous.
• It produces contraction of uterine muscles & uterus, so it is also called as birth hormone or
parturition hormone.
• It promotes ejection of milk from ducts of lactating breasts, so it is also called as milk ejection hormone.
• It produces vasodilation – reduces B.P.
Vasopressin (Pitressin) or Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – proteinous.
• It regulates reabsorption of water from nephric filtrate In DCT & collecting tubules.
• It produces vasoconstriction – increases B.P.
NSEJS
 Disorders of Posterior pituitary Gland-

(i) Diabetes insipidus or Drinker’s Disease –
• It is due to hyposecretion of ADH.
• Large amount of urine is excreted – polyurea (5 liter / day), so excessive thrust – polydipsia & dehydration.
[III] Pineal Gland –

• It is small, stalked & rounded gland.
• Its calcification (CaPO4 & CaCO3) occurs in middle age, which is called as Brain sand.
• It is a timing device to keep internal events synchronized with the light-dark cycle in environment.
❖ Hormones –
(1) Melatonin –
• It is antigonadotrophic, opposes FSH & LH.
• It is antagonistic MSH.
• During day, its amount is low, during night amount increases.
[IV] Thyroid Gland –

• It is largest endocrine gland.
• It lies just below larynx & just anterior to upper portion of trachea.
• It has two lobes, joined by isthmus of tissue (H-shaped gland).
Fig. : Diagrammatic view of the position of Thyroid and Parathyroid (a) Dorsal side (b) Ventral side
1. Thyroxine Hormone – Aminoacid derivative.

• It consists of four organic compounds, called as Iodothyronins (T1, T2, T3 & T4), which are synthesized
as large precursors, called as thyroglobulin (colloid).
• Iodine is essential for formation of thyroxine.
• It increases oxidative metabolism.
• It helps to regulate tissue growth & development.
• It has metabolic effects on protein synthesis & lipid metabolism.
• In amphibians, it is required for metamorphosis.
Concept Boosters:
 Disorders –
(i) Cretinism –
• It is due to hyposecretion of thyroxin from birth.
• It is characterized by retarded physical, mental & sexual development & low metabolic rate.
NSEJS
• Children are stunted (not able to grow) & of low intelligence.
(ii) Myxoedema –
• It is due to hyposecretion of thyroxin in adults.
• It is characterized by low metabolic rate, increased plasma cholesterol, thickness & puffiness of
skin, weight gain, loss of hair, reduced B.P. & pulse rate & decreased body temperature.
(iii) Hashimoto’s Disease or Auto-immune Thyroiditis –
• It is hyposecretion of thyroxin.
• Antibodies are formed against thyroglobulin in middle aged females – thyroid gland is enlarged, so
it is also called as suicide of thyroid.
(iv) Simple Goitre –
• It is due to dietary deficiency of Iodine.
• It is disease of hyposecetion of thyroxin.
• It is enlargement of thyroid, which results in swelling of neck.
• Number of thyroid cells increase to secrete more hormone to compensate original hormone deficiency.
(v) Grave’s Disease or Exophthalmic Goitre –
• It is disease of hypersecretion of thyroxin, also called as thyrotoxicosis.
• It is characterized by enlargement of entire gland, protrusion of eyeballs (exophthalmus), weight
loss, elevated B.M.R., high pulse rate & profuse perspiration.
(2) Calcitonin –
• It reduces blood calcium & phosphate concentration.
• It makes the bones strong – reduces reabsorption of calcium from bones.
• It inhibits reabsorption of calcium from renal tubules.
• Its deficiency causes osteoporosis (loss of bone density).
[V] Parathyroid Glands –

• These are four small glands.
• To each lobe of thyroid gland, two parathyroid glands are attached.
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or Parathormone – proteinous.

• It is also called as Collip’s hormone.
• It increases blood calcium level & decreases phosphate level.
• It causes absorption of calcium & phosphate from bones.
• It enhances calcium & phosphate absorption from intestine.
• It reduces excretion of calcium from kidneys.
• It causes excessive phosphate excretion from kidneys.
Concept Boosters:
 Disorders –
(i) Tetany –
• It is due to hyposecretion of PTH.
• Plasma calcium level is decreased & phosphate level is increased, which results in muscular
twitching (sudden quick movement, which cannot be controlled), cramps & spasms (sudden painful
tightening of muscle), especially of hands, feet, face & larynx.
(ii) Osteoporosis –
• It is due to hypersecretion of PTH.
• Cavities are formed in bones to due excess reabsorption of calcium, making them soft, liable to
fracture & develop deformities.
• Excess calcium deposits in body, bringing calcification of soft tissue & stones in kidneys & ureters.
[VI] Adrenal Glands or Suprarenal glands –

NSEJS
• These are one pair, yellowish, vascular glands, lying over kidney, embedded in fat.
• These are also called as 4S-glands (Sugar metabolism, Salt retaining, Sex hormone & Stress reaction).
Fig. : Diagrammatic representationof :

(a) Adrenal gland on kidney (b) Section showing two parts of adrenal gland
❖ Each gland consists of two parts –
❖ Adrenal Cortex –
• It is outer, yellowish & mesodermal part.
❖ Hormones -
• Adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid hormones, collectively called as adrenocorticoids.
1. Mineralocorticoids –
• These act on kidney.
• These are steroid hormones, secreted by zona glomerulosa.
• Ex. – Aldosterone & Deoxycorticosterone.
• Secretion of aldosterone is controlled by Renin-Angiotensin system.
• Aldosterone is salt retaining hormone, its main function is retention of sodium & excretion of
potassium.
(2) Glucocorticoids –
• These act on liver.
• These cause gluconeogenesis, lipolysis & breakdown of proteins.
Ex. Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) & Cortisone.
(3) Sex Corticoids –

• These act on gonads.
• These also include small amount of female sex hormones – Estrogen & Progesterone.
• These promote secondary sex characters in males, but have minor role, as these are produced in
small quantities.
❖ Adrenal Medulla –
• It is reddish-brown & completely surrounded by cortex.
• It is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system.
❖ Hormones –
(1) Adrenaline (Epinephrine) –
NSEJS
• It is called as emergency hormone, as it is secreted in emergency – cold, injury, pain, emotional
stress, anger, fear & fall in B.P. & blood sugar.
• It is also called as Triple ‘F’ hormone – hormone for fight, fright & flight.
• It increases blood supply to muscles & heart.
• It reduces peristalsis, digestion & urinary activities.
• It dilates pupil.
• It increases glucose & oxygen supply to skeletal muscles.
(2) Nor-adrenaline (Nor-epinephrine) –

• Its effects are more or less same as adrenaline, but it operates during normal conditions & exercise.
• It has lesser effect on cardiac activity, but it produces greater vasoconstriction in muscles &
increases B.P.
• It has lesser effect on metabolism.
[VII] Pancreas –
• It is 2nd largest endocrine gland.
• It is heterocrine gland.
• Exocrine part is acini.
• Endocrine part is Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets, which are 2 – 3 % of pancreas.
These are clusters of endocrine cells, scattered through exocrine tissue.
• -cells – these secrete glucagon hormone.
• -cells – these secrete insulin hormone.
• -cells – these secrete somatostatin hormone.
❖ Hormones –
(1) Glucagon –
• It increases blood glucose level, by promoting glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis.
• Its effects are opposite to insulin, it is secreted whenever, there is decrease in plasma level of
glucose.
Its hypersecretion causes glycosuria.
(2) Insulin –
• It is regulator of carbohydrate metabolism.
• It decreases blood glucose level by stimulating glycogenesis in muscles & liver.
• Both insulin & glucagon are associated with carbohydrate metabolism & have antagonistic effect,
so these regulate blood glucose level.
❖ Disorder –
(i) Diabetes mellitus –
• It is due to hyposecretion of insulin.
• It is characterized by hyperglycaemia, glycosuria.
(3) Somatostatin –
• It inhibits growth hormone.
• It keeps a check on secretion of glucagon, insulin & gastrin.
NSEJS
[VIII] Gonads –
(1) Testis –
• These are located in scrotum of male.
• Endocrine part is Leydig’s cells (interstitial cells), which are group of cells found in connective
tissue around seminiferous tubules.
• These secrete male sex hormone – Androgens.
• Androgens –
• Testosterone is main androgen.
• Testosterone is responsible for growth & development of male secondary sex organs (prostrate,
seminal vesicles etc.) & male secondary characteristics (beard & moustaches).
• It stimulates spermatogenesis.
Ex. – Testosterone, Androsterone, Epiandrosterone & Dehydroepiandrosterone.
(2) Ovaries : These lie in abdominal cavity of females.

❖ Estrogens –
• These are group of steroid hormones, secreted by follicular epithelial cells of membrana granulosa
of graafian follicles.
• Estradiol is main estrogen.
• It stimulates growth & development of female secondary sex organs & characteristics.
• It decreases secretion of FSH & increases secretion of LH during menstrual cycle.
• During pregnancy, it is secreted by placenta.
• Ex. – Estradiol
❖ Progesterone –
• It is steroid hormone, secreted by corpus luteum.
• Small quantity is also produced by adrenal cortex & placenta.
• It is responsible for maintenance of pregnancy, so it is also called as pregnancy hormone.
• Its hyposecretion causes abortion, so it is also called as antiabortion hormone.
• During pregnancy, it helps in attachment of embryo to uterine wall, development of placenta &
growth of secondary alveoli in mammary glands.
• It has negative feedback effect on FSH & LH secretion.
❖ Relaxin –
• It is secreted by ovaries & also by placenta.
• In ovaries, it is secreted by corpus albicans, which is formed from corpus luteum at the end of
gestation period.
[IX] Thymus Gland-

• The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between lungs behind sternum on the ventral side of
aorta.
• The thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune system.
• This gland secretes thymosins.
• Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated
immunity.
• In addition, thymosins also promote production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
• Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased production of thymosins.
As a result, the immune responses of old persons become weak.
NSEJS
NSEJS
(b) Nervous system :

In animals two kinds of control & co-ordination (nervous & chemical) are present. The nervous
co-ordination is brought about by the nervous system and the chemical co-ordination by hormones.
Both the systems work an integrated system. Infact such a control and coordination requires
• Gathering information about changes in the external environment.
• Transmitting this information to the internal cells located away from the body surface.
• Exchange of information between the cells situated away from each other.
• The nervous system of human beings consists of central & peripheral nervous systems.
• Neuron is the structural & functional unit of nervous system. It is the longest cell found in the body.
• They unite the receptor and effector organs with each other.
• The nervous system is composed of neurons.
• These are surrounded by a connective tissue called neuroglia.
• Impulses from receptors run through neurons.
• The number of neurons are almost fixed for a particular species.
Fig. : Neuron
(i) Structure :
NSEJS
• Each neuron consists of a cell body called cyton and a number of branches (nerve fibres) arising
from the cyton. Neuron does not divide.
• Cyton contains a nucleus within the cytoplasm & Nissl’s granules (formed of RER with ribosomes)
and fine thread like fibres, called neurofibrils.
(I) Dendrites : These are short, several, much branched & contain granules. They carry impulse
towards the cyton.
(II) Axon : It is a large, single and unbranched structure. It has no nissl’s granules. It carries impulses
from cyton to the effector organs like glands, muscles etc. Synapse is a very fine gap between these
two neurons. Thus, in the entire nervous system neurons are linked together.
(ii) Types of Neurons or Nerve Fibres :

(I) Motor : It carries impulses from brain and spinal cord to effector organs.
(II) Sensory : It transmits impulse from sensory organs to central nervous system.
(iii) Types of Nervous System :

(I) Central nervous system : It lies along the main (longitudinal) axis of the body. It consists of the
brain and the spinal cord. The brain is covered by cranium & spinal cord is covered by vertebral
column, both are also surrounded by three membranes of the connective tissues called meninges.
Fig. : Sagital (Median) Section of Human Brain

• Outer most membrane duramater
• Middle membrane arachnoid
• Inner most membrane piamater.
• The space between the membranes is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid that protects the
brain from mechanical shocks. The brain can be differentiated into three main regions fore brain,
mid brain & hind brain.
1. Fore brain : It consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
• Olfactory lobes : They receive impulse for smell.
• Cerebrum : It is the largest part of the brain. It consists of two cerebral hemispheres. Fissures
divide each cerebral hemisphere into four lobes.
• Occipital lobe : Region for visual perception
• Frontal lobe : For muscular activities
• Parietal lobe : For touch, smell, temperature and conscious association
• Temporal lobe : For auditory reception
Cerebrum has sensory areas where impulses are received from sense organs (receptors). Similarly it has
a general motor area from where impulses are sent to effector organs (Muscles & glands).
NSEJS
• Diencephalon : It encloses a cavity called third ventricle. It consists of thalamus and
hypothalamus. Thalamus serves as a relay centre for sensory and motor impulses from spinal cord
and medulla oblongata to cerebrum. It recognizes sensory impulses of heat, cold, pain, light &
pressure. Floor of third ventricle is called hypothalamus. It possesses control centres for hunger,
thirst, thermoregulation, sleep, sex, stress etc.
2. Mid Brain : These are the centres for control of eye movement and hearing responses.
3. Hind brain : Posterior part of the brain.
• Cerebellum : It controls coordination and adjustment of movements (equilibrium) and posture.
• Pons varolii : It controls some aspects of respiration.
• Medulla oblongata : t is the posterior most part of the brain and continues into the spinal cord.
It controls involuntary functions of the body such as heart beat, rate of breathing, secretion of
saliva, swallowing, coughing, sneezing & vomiting etc.
4. Spinal cord : It lies in the vertebral column. It starts from medulla oblongata and extends
downward. It is also protected by three meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It also acts as a centre for
spinal flexes.
Fig. : Reflex arch
• Reflex Action : Reflex action is the name given to the response which is at the level of spinal cord
itself. It is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus by an organ or a system of organs, which does
not involve the brain for its initiation. A reflex action is an unconscious (without will) and
involuntary response of effectors (muscles or glands) to a stimulus. Mammals show a wide range of
reflexes which can be broadly classified into two types : unconditioned and conditoned reflexes.
• Unconditioned reflexes. Even when the body has no past experience of a stimulus it still responds
spontaneously and such responses or actions are called unconditioned reflexes. These are responses
to a natural unconditioned stimulus. The examples of unconditioned reflexes are the blinking of an
eye when a particle of dust touches the eyelids, excitement of the salivary glands after seeing the
food, etc. Other reflex actions are shown in the Table.
• Conditioned reflexes : When a reflex which does not naturally exist had becomes a part of the
animal behaviour. Such a reflex is said to be conditioned. Conditioned reflex were first
demonstrated by the Russian phyisiologist, Pavlov. The cerebrum controls the conditioned reflexes.
NSEJS
Fig. : Pavlov’s Experiment on Dog to Show Conditional Reflex.
(II) Peripheral nervous system : It consists of nerves, which extend between the central nervous
system and the sense organs or body’s effectors (muscles, glands, etc.) or both. It carries
information to and from the CNS. It mainly controls the voluntary activities of the body. It includes
cranial nerves (They arise from or join the brain) and spinal nerves (They arise from spinal cord).
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in man and 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal cord.
(III) Autonomic nervous system : It consists of nerves which connect the visceral receptors and
effectors with the CNS through the cranial and spinal nerves. It controls involuntary activities of
internal organs such as heart, blood vessels, glands & smooth muscles of alimentary canal & uterus.
It is subdivided into
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic system
• Organs receive nerves from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres. They have opposite
effects on the organs if one is stimulatory, the other is inhibitory.
• The activity of brain is recorded as electrical potentials such a record is called Electro
Encephalogram (EEG). An instrument called electro encephalograph.
MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION
NSEJS
NSEJS
HUMAN SKELETION – 206 bones

Axial-80 Appendicular-126
APPENDICULAR SKELETION – 126 BONES
LIMB BONES - 120 GIRDLE Bones - 06
Fore limb Bones - 60 Hind limb Bones-60 Pectoral Girdle - 4 Pelvic Girdle - 2
Humerus – 1×2 Femur – 1×2 Scapula – 1×2
Radius – 1×2 Patells – 1×2 Clavicle – 1×2
Ulna – 1×2 Tiba – 1×2 (is formed by 2
Carpals – 8×2 Fibula – 1×2 hip bones
Metacarplas – 5×2 Tarsls – 7×2 and each
Phalanges – 14×2 Metatarsals – 5×2 hip bone is
Phalanges – 14×2 formed by
Phalanges – 14×2 fusion of 3
hip bones
ilium,
ischium
and
punbis)
AXIAL SKELETION – 80 BONES

SKULL SKELETION-29 STERNUM-01 RIBS-24 VERTEBRIAL
COLUMN- Phalang
26 eal
Cranial - 8 Facial - 14 True - 14 Cervical - 7 formula
Frontal - 1 Maxilla - 2 False - 10 Thoracic - 12 is
Parietal - 2 Palatine - 2 Lumbar - 5 23333
Temporal - 2 Zygomatic - 2 Sacral - 5 Bones
Occipital - 1 Nasal - 2 Coccygeal - 4 formed
Ethmoid - 1 Lacrymal - 2 by
Sphenoid - 1 Inferior ossificat
Turbin ion of
als - 2 tendons
Mandible - 1 are
Vomer - 1 called
sessamo
ASSOCIATED SKULL BONES - 07
id
Hyoid Bone - 1 Ear ossicles - 2×3 (Malleus, Incus, Stapes)
bones.
Longest and strongest bone of human body is femur.
Smallest bone of human body is stapes.
Rabbit -axial skeleton 132 bones, appendicular skeleton 128 bones
INTRODEUCTION
Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages.
Two types of skeleton are endoskeleton and exoskeleton.
Exoskeleton develops from epidermis e.g. nails, horns, hooves, feathers, scales, claws etc.
Exoskeleton is ectodermal in origin and nonliving.
Endoskeleton is mesodermal in origin and is living in nature.
This system has a significant role in movement shown by the body. Imagine chewing food
without jaw bones and walking around without the limb bones. Bone and cartilage are
specialised connective tissues.
NSEJS
The former has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly pliable
matrix due to chondroitin salts. In human beings, this system is made up of 206 bones and a
few cartilages. It is grouped into two principal divisions- the axial and the appendicular
skeleton.
Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body.
The skull vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton.
SKILL
The skull is composed of two sets of bones - cranial and facial. that totals to 22 bones. Cranial
bones are 8 in number (frontal-1. parietal-2. temporal-2. occipital-1. ethmoid-1 and sphenoid).
They form the hard protective outer covering. cranium for the brain. Cavity of sphenoid bone
is called sella turcica in which pituitary gland is present.
The facial region is made up of 14 skeletal elements (Inferior turbinals-2, Maxilla-2,
Malar(Zygomaticl-2, Nasal- 2, Palatine-2, Lacrymal-2, Vomer-1, Mandible-1) which form the
front part of the skull. A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal
cavity and it is also included in the skull.
Hyoid bone is the only bone which is not attached with any other bone of the body.
Tongue is attached with hyoid bone
Each middle ear contains three tiny bones - Malleus, Incus and Stapes, collectively called Ear
Ossicles. Joint between malleus and incus is hinge whearas joint between incus and stapes is
ball and socket Malleus is modification of articular bone, Incus is modification of quadrate
bone, Stapes is smallest bone of body modification of hyomandibular bone. The skull region
articulates with the superior region of the vertebral column with the help of two occipital
condyles (dicondylic skull). An opening is present at the base of occipital bone called foramen
of magnum. Medulla oblongata leave out through foramen of magnum and enter into the cavity
of vertebral column. This extended part of medulla oblongata is called spinal cord.
Skull is monocondylic in reptiles and birds whereas dicondylic in amphibians and
mammals.
All these bones of skull are joined together by suture.
Eg. (1) Coronal suture : Between the frontal & parietal bone
(2) Lambdoidal suture : Between parietal & occipital
NSEJS
(3) Saggital suture : Between parietal & parietal
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Our vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and is dorsally
placed. It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of the trunk.
Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal cord passes.
The vertebral column is differentiated into cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1-
fused) and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting from the skull. The number of cervical
vertebrae are seven in almost all mammals including human beings.
• Body of vertebrae called as centrum.
• Shape of centrum like a short cylinder, with flat upper and lower surfaces. (Amphiplatyan
centrum)
• Centrum of two adjoining vertebrae attached through intervertebral disc (cartilagenous joint).
• On dorsal surface of centrum vertebral foramen/ spinal foramen is present. All vertebral
foramen allinged one over each other to make a vertebral canal/neural canal which carries
spinal cord.
• Above it neural arch is present through which spinous process/ neural spine arise. It is
projecting backwards and downwards.
• On both lateral side transverse process are present.
• Articular processes : Projecting upwards and downwards (Prezygapophysis and
postzygapophysis). These process articulates with the articular processes of adjoining vertebrae
through gliding joint.
• Two adjoining vertebrae therefore articulate at three joints, with each other (Two between left
and right articular processes and one between the body of vertebrae).
Cervical Vertebrae (Smallest vertebrae)

• The number of cervical vertebrae are seven in almost all mammals including human being.
• All cervical vertebrae have apertures in their transverse process called as Foramina
transversarium. Which alainged to form vertebroarterial canal. Through this canal vertebral
artery passes. This artery supply blood in brain and spinal cord.
• Spinous process of cervical vetebrae is bifid (Except C7)
• Only C7 has demifacets where upper part of head of 1st rib articulates.
First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles with condylar joint.
Condylar joint is responsible for yes movement. (Upward and downward movement)
Centrum, Pre and Postzygopophysis are absent in atlas.
Second vertebrae is axis vertebrae. Atlas has an opening called odontoid fossa in which
projection (Odontoid process) of axis fit and form pivot joint. No movement is the result of
pivot joint (No movement means sideways movement)
Post zygapophysis and centrum are present but prezygopophysis is absent in axis.
Thoracic vertebrae
Identified by :
They are larger than cervical vertebrae.
They are identify by the presence of costal demifacetes on the centrum.
On their transverse processes, tubercular facets are present in which tubercle part of rib
articulates.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
These are the largest sized vertebrae because they have to support the weight of upper body.
Sacrum
Large flattened triangular bone formed by fusion of five sacral vertebrae.
NSEJS
Coccyx
It is vestigial in human and formed by fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae.
Human vertebral formula –C7 T12 L15 S(5) C(4)
Significance of vertebral column

(1) The vertebral column protects the spinal cord
(2) The vertebral column supports the head
(3) The vertebral column serves as the point of attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back
STERNUM
Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax. There are three parts of sternum –
prosternum(manubrium), mesosternum and metasternum (xiphoid process). Clavicle and 1st
pair of ribs are attached with manubrium. 2nd to 7th pair of ribs are attached with mesosternum.
Xiphoid process is smallest part, lower half of 7th coastal cartilage articulate.
The sternum is a favoured site for obtaining samples of haemopoietic tissue during diagnosis of
suspected blood diseases.
NSEJS
RIBS
Ribs : There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral
column and ventrally to the sternum. It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is
hence called bicephalic.
First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs. Dorsally, they are attached to the thoracic vertebrae
and ventrally connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline cartilage. The 8th, 9th and 10th
pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum but join the seventh rib with the help of
hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral (false) ribs. Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of
ribs are not connected ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs (false ribs). Thoracic
vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage.
There are five parts of rib cage :
(1) Dorsal consist of vertebral column and ribs
(2) Ventral consist of sternum and ribs
(3) Lateral consist of ribs
(4) Anterior consist of neck and clavicle
(5) Posterior consist of diaphragm
Appendicular skeleton :
The bones of the limbs alongwith their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton.
Each limb is made of 30 bones.
FORE LIMB BONES

The bones of the hand (fore limb) are humerus, radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bones -8 in
number), metacarpals (palm bones – 5 in number) and phalanges (digits – 14 in number).\
NSEJS
Humerus : Head of humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity

of scapula to form shoulder joint (ball and socket joint). This
bone has an elevated rough part on the shaft called deltoid ridge
where deltoid muscles are attached. Lower end of humerus
articulates laterally with radius and medially with ulna.
Radius and Ulna : Head of radius is disc shaped, covered with
hyaline cartilage. Superior concave surface of head of radius
articulates with the humerus at the elbow joint. Circumference
of head of radius fits into socket of ulna to form radioulnar
joint. Inferior surface of radius bears an articular area for
scaphoid and lunate bone. Upper end of ulna articulate with
humerus whereas lower and articulate with carpals.
LATERAL ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ MEDIAN

Proximal row She Looks Too Pretty
SCAPHOID LUNATE TRIQUETRUM PISIFORM
TRAPEZIUM TRAPEZOID CAPITATE HAMATE
Distal row Try To Catch Her
The only sesamoid bone of forelimb is pisiform

Metacarpal bones are 5 in number
Phalangeal formula is 23333
NSEJS
HIND LIMB BONES

Femur (thigh bone - the longest strongest and heaviest bone), tibia and fibula tarsals (ankle
bones - 7 in number). metatarsals (5 in number) and phalanges (digits -14 in number) are the
bones of the legs (hind limb).
A cup shaped bone called patella cover the knee ventrally (knee cap).
The only sesamoid bone of hindlimb is patella
Phalangeal formula is 23333
Femur:
Head of femur: Directed medialy, upwards.
- Articulates with acetabulum to form the hip joint. (Ball and Socket joint)
Lower end of femur is widely expanded to form two large condyles, one medial & one lateral.
Patella bone : Small, triangular, sesamoid bone. It is knee bone and located in the pateller
groove of femur bone upon knee joint.
Tibia
Medial & larger bone of the leg.
Upper end articulates with femur bone.
Fibula
Lateral & smaller bone of the leg.
Its upper end articulates with the tibia
It does not participate in the formation of knee joint.
Its lower end fused with tibia and form inferior tibiofibular joint (immovable joint)
NSEJS
Tarsals
Ankle is made of seven tarsal bones arranged in two
rows.
Proximal row : Talus above, Navicular in between and
Calcaneum below.
Tarsal bones are much larger & stronger than carpal
bones because they have to support & distribute body
weight.
Talus is second largest tarsal bone, lies between tibia
above & calcaneum below.
Calcaneum : Largest tarsal bone, forms the prominence
of heal.
Communicate body weight towards posterior during
standing condition.
Distal row :- Four tarsal bones lying side by side
(cuneiform I, II, III and one cuboid)
Metatarsals
5 meta tarsal bones which are numbered medial to lateral.
Phalanges
• 14 Phalanges, 2 for great toe & 3 each for other four toes.
• As compared to Phalanges of hand, these are small in size.
• Digital formula = 2, 3, 3, 3, 3
NSEJS
GIRDLES
Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper and the lower limbs
respectively with the axial skeleton. Each girdle is formed of two halves.
Each half of pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula. Scapula is a large triangular
flat bone situated in the dorsal part of the thorax between the second and the seventh ribs. The
dorsal, flat, triangular body of scapula has a slightly elevated ridge called the spine which
projects as a flat, expanded process called the acromion.
The clavicle (beauty bone) (collar bone) articulates with this. Below the acromion is a
depression called the glenoid cavity which articulates with the head of the humerus to form the
shoulder joint. Each clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. This bone is
commonly called the collar bone.
NSEJS
Plevic girdle consists of two coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three
bones – ilium, ischium and pubis. At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called
acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates. The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet
ventrally to form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.
Differences Between Male and Female Pelvis

1. General width Hips are wider Hips are narrower
2. Pubis Longer, more rectangular Short, Triangular
JOINTS
Joints are essential for all types of movements involving the bony parts of the body.
Locomotory movements are no exception to this. Joints are points of contact between bones. or
between bones and cartilages. Force generated by the muscles is used to carry out movement
through joints, where the joint acts as a fulcrum. The movability at these joints very depending
on different factors. Joints have been classified into three major structural forms, namely,
fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial.
Fibrous joints (Immovable joints) (SYNARTHROSIS) do not allow any movement. This type
of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous
connective tissues in the form of sutures, to form the cranium.
In cartilaginous joints (SYNCHONDROSIS), the bones involved are joined together with the
help of cartilages. The joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column is of this
pattern and it permits limited movements.
Synovial joints (DIARTHROSIS) are characterised by the presence of a fluid filled synovial
cavity between the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows
considerable movement. These joints help in locomotion and many other movements. Ball and
socket joint (between humerus and pectoral girdle), Hinge joint (knee joint). Pivot joint
(between atlas and axis), Gliding joint between the carpals) and Saddle joint (between carpal
and metacarpal of thumb) are some examples
Maximum degree of mobility can be seen with a ball and socket synovial joint because ball can
rotate in a hollow spherical socket on infinite axis.
NSEJS
JOINTS
1. BW. ACROMAIN PROCESS- CLAVICLE ACRMOIOCLAVICULAR JOINT
2. BW. STERNUM-CLAVICLE STERNOCLAVICULAR JOINT
3. HEAD OF HUMERUS AND GLENOID BALL AND SOCKET JOINT
CAVITY OF SCAPULA
4. HUMERUS-RADIUS-ULNA HINGE JOINT
5. RADIUS-ULNA RADIOULNAR
(PIVOT)(SYNDESMOSIS)
6. BW. CARPALS GLIDING JOINT
7. BW. CARPALS AND METACARPAL OF SADDLE JOINT
THUMB
8. BW. PHALANGES HINGE JOINTS
9. ACETABULUM OF HIP BONE AND BALL AND SOCKET JOINT
HEAD OF FEMUR
10. KNEE JOINT HINGE JOINT
11. TIBIA-FIBULA TIBIO FIBULAR
12. ANKLE JOINT HINGE JOINT
13. BW. PHALANGES HINGE JOINTS
14. BW. TARSALS GLIDING JOINTS
15. PUBIS-PUBIS PUBIS SYMPHYSIS
16. BW. CRANIAL BONES SUTURES
17. BW. ATLAS AND AXIS PIVOT JOINT
18. TEETH IN SOCKETS GOMPHOSIS
19. INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS CARTILAGENOUS
20. BW.STERNUM AND RIBS CARTILAGENOUS
• Study of body movements is called kinesiology

• Study of joints is called anthology
• Comparative study of skull is called cardiology
DISORDERS OF BONES
(1) ARTHRITIS : It is caused by the inflammation of the joints. This is of several types, e.g.
rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and gouty arthritis.
(i) The rheumatoid arthritis: It is diagnosed by the presence of rheumatoid factor (a type of
immunoglobulin IgM). It is the primary symptom of inflammation of synovial membrane. If it
is left untreated, then the I membrane thickens and synovial fluid increases, exerting pressure
that causes pain. The membrane then starts secreting abnormal granules, called pannus, which
after accumulating on the surface of the cartilage, cause its erosion. As a result, the fibrous
tissues are attached with the bones and become ossified, making the joints immovable. Its
treatment concentrates on reduction of pain and inflammation by heat treatment and
physiotherapy and, in extreme cases, replacement of the damaged joints.
(ii) Osteoarthritis : Is a degenerative joint disease characterised by the degeneration of the
articular cartilage and proliferation of new bones. Usually, afflected joints are of spine, knees
and hands.
(iii) Gouty arthritis or gout : It is caused either due to excessive formation of uric acid, or
inability to excrete it. It gets deposited in joints as monosodium salt.
(2) OSTEOPOROSIS : It is age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone mass and

increased chances of fractures. Decreased level of estrogen is a common cause.
NSEJS
EXERCISE # 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A): NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
1 Number of teeth in human which grow twice are:
(A) 18 (B) 14 (C) 12 (D) 20
2 Bile juice is produced by -

(A) Stomach (B) Liver (C) Gall bladder (D) Pancreas
3 During digestion of food in alimentary canal, protein is acted upon by enzymes in the following
sequence.
(A) Ptyalin, trypsin and peptidase (B) amylase, trypsin and pepsin
(C) Pepsin, trypsin and peptidase (D) ptyalin, pepsin and trypsin
4 In amoeba the digestion is intracellular because

(A) amoeba is unicellular (B) amoeba is multicellular
(C) Amoeba is found in pond (D) amoeba is a microscopic animal
5 The path taken by food material after ingestion is represented by

(A) Mouth → Oesophagus → Stomach → Pharynx
(B) Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Small Intestine → Stomach
(C) Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Stomach
(D) Oesophagus → Mouth → Pharynx → Stomach
6 Teeth involved in cutting of food material are called

(A) Incisors (B) canines (C) molars (D) premolars
7 The most important function of villi in the small intestine is

(A) To provide strength to the intestine
(B) To provide space for capillaries and lacteals
(C) To provide increased surface area for absorption of digested food
(D) To provide habitat for bacteria
8 Which of the following secretions does not contain enzymes?

(A) Bile (B) Pancreatic juice (C) Intestinal juice (D) Saliva
9 Chewing is an example of
(A) Chemical digestion (B) mechanical digestion
(C) Involuntary action (D) hydrolysis
10 Microvilli are present in

(A) Stomach (B) small intestine (C) large intestine (D) mouth
11 Pepsin differs from trypsin in that it digests:

(A) Protein in alkaline medium in stomach (B) protein in acid medium in stomach
(C) Protein in acid medium in duodenum (D) protein in alkaline medium in duodenum.
NSEJS
12 Through mastication of food is essential because
(A) Mastication of food makes the teeth stronger
(B) It makes the process of swallowing the food easier
(C) By this process bigger pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces
(D) Bigger pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces and saliva is properly mixed with it
13 The wave of contractions that pushes the food through the alimentary canal is called
(A) Peritoneum (B) peristalsis (C) cyclosis (D) polarisation
14 In amoeba absorption of the digested nutrients occurs in

(A) Contractile vacuole (B) plasma membrane (C) cytoplasm (D) pseudopodia
15 Well developed alimentary canal first developed in

(A) Protozoans (B) Mammals (C) Nematoda (D) Poriferans
SECTION (B) : RESPIRATION

1. The process of respiration is concerned with
(A) liberation of oxygen (B) liberation of carbon dioxide
(C) liberation of energy (D) intake of oxygen
2. The common immediate source of energy for cellular activity is

(A) NAD (B) ATP (C) DNA (D) RNA
3. The tissue respiration refers to

(A) inspiration (B) external respiration (C) internal respiration (D) expiration
4. In anaerobic respiration
(A) O2 is taken in (B) CO2 is taken in (C) O2 is given out (D) CO2 is given out
5. Respiration in yeast
(A) takes place in the presence of oxygen (B) yields lactic acid and carbon dioxide
(C) is anaerobic and produces carbon dioxide (D) takes place only in darkness
6. Muscle cells engaged in vigorous activity build up a high concentration of

(A) lactic acid (B) pyruvic acid (C) alcohol (D) cholesterol
7. More energy production occurs in which respiration –

(A) aerobic respiration (B) anaerobic respiration
(C) same energy in both (D) energy production is uncertain
SECTION (C) : RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
1. If the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, the rate of breathing will
(A) decrease (B) stop (C) increase (D) have no effect
2. Vocal cords occur in which structure ?

(A) pharynx (B) glottis (C) bronchial tube (D) larynx
3. Inman, which of the following structures is used for gaseous exchange ?

(A) Nostrils (B) Lungs (C) Bronchioles (D) Alveoli
NSEJS
4. Which of the following prevents collapsing of trachea ?

(A) Diaphragm (B) Ribs (C) Cartilaginous ring (D) Muscles
5. Which is the correct sequence of the air passage in man ?

(A) nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli sac
(B) nasal cavity → pharynx → trachea → larynx → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli
(C) nasal cavity → larynx → bronchi → pharynx → trachea → bronchioles → alveoli
(D) nasal cavity → larynx → pharynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli
6. Breathing rate in mammals is controlled by a part of the brain called the

(A) thalamus (B) hypothalamus (C) medulla oblongata (D) cerebellum
7. Disease called pleurisy is due to

(A) inflammation of pleura (B) inflammation of trachea
(C) inflammation of alveoli (D) none of the above
8. Which of the following gases makes the most stable combination with the haemoglobin of red blood
cells ?
(A) CO2 (B) CO (C) O2 (D) N2
9. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried in the form of

(A) carbonic acid (B) bicarbonates
(C) carbaminohaemoglobin (D) dissolved CO2
10. Which of the following is not a characteristic of good respiratory surface?

(A) Thin and moist (B) Large surface area
(C) Close to oxygen and gas transport (D) Thick and dry surface
11. Oxygen is transported in blood mainly by

(A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes (C) thrombocytes (D) blood plasma
SECTION (D): TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN

1. Which of the following is used in measuring blood pressure?
(A) Potometer (B) Sphygmomanometer
(C) Barometer (D) Goniometer
2. An artery is a vessel that carries blood
(A) With high concentration of oxygen (B) with high concentration of CO2
(C) Away from the heart (D) both A & C
3. Valves are found in veins to check the backflow of blood flowing under
(A) High pressure (B) low pressure
(C) No pressure (D) atmospheric pressure.
4. In the cardiac cycle, diastole is

(A) The number of heart beats per minute
(B) The relaxation period after contraction of the heart
(C) The forceful pumping action of the heart
(D) The contraction period after relaxation of the heart
NSEJS
5. One of the difference between blood and lymph is that
(A) Blood has RBCs and WBCs while lymph has lymphocytes
(B) Blood has RBCs while lymph has no WBCs
(C) Blood has WBCs while lymph has RBCs
(D) Blood has dissolved organic salts while lymph has no such inorganic salt
6. Blood vessel carrying blood from lung to heart through

(A) Pulmonary artery (B) Pulmonary vein (C) Coronary artery (D) None of these
7. Mammals are said to have double circulation, it means

(A) Blood vessels are paired
(B) There are two types of blood vessels attached to every organ
(C) There are two systems,
(D) The blood circulates twice through the heart
8. The first heart sound is produced when:

(A) Intraventricular pressure decreases (B) semilunar valve snaps shut
(C) Bicuspid and tricuspid valve close quickly (D) diastole begins
9. A transport system is needed to transport

(i) Nutrients, oxygen and hormones from the place, they are absorbed or received to the cells.
(ii) Waste products from the place they are formed to the place from where they are eliminated outside
(iii) Transport metabolic intermediate from one to another place.
(A) (i) and (ii) correct (B) (i) and (iii) correct (C) (ii) and (iii) correct (D) (i) , (ii) & (iii) correct
10. Pulmonary vein carries -

(A) Impure blood always (B) pure blood always
(C) Impure blood sometimes (D) mixed blood
11. In a closed circulatory system, blood is completely enclosed with in

(A) Sinuses (B) vessels (C) heart (D) skeleton
12. Removal of calcium from freshly collected blood will

(A) Prevent clotting (B) result in clotting
(C) Prevent oxidation of haemoglobin (D) cause hemolysis.
SECTION (E): EXCRETION IN ANIMAL

1. In cockroach, excretion is performed by-
(A) Renette cells (B) flame cells (C) Nephridia (D) Malpighian tubules
2. Which one is excretory organ among the following-?

(A) Archeocyte (B) choanocyte (C) solenocyte (D) pinacocyte
3. Excretory organ in nematode-

(A) flame cells (B) Renette cells (C) coxal gland (D) malpighian tubules
4. Excretion is removal of
(A) CO2 (B) harmful and useless ingredients
(C) extra water (D) metabolic wastes
5. Major function of contractile vacuole is

(A) Excretion (B) circulation (C) osmoregulation (D) phagocytosis
6. Urine is always fluid except in:

(A) Birds (B) Humans (C) Amphibians (D) Mammals
NSEJS
7. Osmoregulation is control over:

(A) Removal of Nitrogen from the body (B) Concentrations of salt and water in the body
(C) Osmotic properties of cell membrane (D) pH of the blood
8. Nitrogenous wastes are formed from the breakdown of:

(A) NH3 (B) Fat (C) Amino acids (D) Water
9. Nitrogenous waste products are eliminated mainly as:

(A) Urea in tadpole and ammonia in adult frog (B) Ammonia in tadpole and urea in adult frog
(C) Urea in both tadpole and in adult frog (D) Urea in tadpole and uric acid in adult frog
10. Flame cells are the excretory organ in

(A) Platyhelminthes (B) Annelida (C) Sponge (D) none of these
11. In Amoeba, osmoregulation is carried out by:

(A) Food Vacuole (B) Plasma membrane (C) Contractile vacuole (D) Both B and C
12. Excretion is required for maintaining homeostasis of body fluids through regulation of their:
(A) Volume composition, pH and osmotic potential
(B) Volume
(C) Composition and pH
(D) Osmotic potential
SECTION (F): HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. Which of the following parts of a kidney contains the lowest concentration of urea?
(A) Loop of Henle (B) Branches of renal vein
(C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Glomerulus
2. Uriniferous tubules of a kidney are concerned with formation of

(A) Glucose (B) amino acids (C) hormones (D) urine
3. Podocytes are found in

(A) Bowman’s capsule (B) PCT (C) DCT (D) none of these
4. Ammonia is converted into urea in

(A) Kidney (B) spleen (C) liver (D) nephron
5. Function of loop of Henle is

(A) Conservation of water (B) formation of urine
(C) Filtration of blood (D) passage of urine
6. Urea is transported through

(A) RBCs (B) WBCs (C) Plasma (D) lymph
7. Which one is an accessory excretory organ?

(A) Liver (B) Stomach (C) Intestine (D) Heart
8. Functional unit of kidney is
(A) Nephron (B) Nephritis (C) Neuron (D) Loop of Henle
9. Which one of the following glands does not help in excretion?
(A) Liver (B) sweat glands (C) pancreas (D) both (A) and (C)
NSEJS
10. If Henle’s loop is absent from mammalian nephron, which one of the following is to be expected?
(A) Hardly any change in quality and quantity of urine formed
(B) Urine will be more concentrated
(C) Urine will be more dilute
(D) No urine formation
11. Among which one of the following are part of nephron?
(A) Cortex (B) Medulla (C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Collecting duct
12. Which blood vessel contains the least amount of urea?
(A) Hepatic vein (B) Renal vein (C) Hepatic portal vein (D) Renal artery
13. The filtrate from the glomerulus contains:
(A) Urea and uric acid (B) Urea, uric acid and ammonia
(C) Urea, uric acid, ammonia and water (D) Urea, uric acid, glucose and water.
14. Excretion is a continuous process but urine is not passed out continuously because of:
(A) Urinary bladder (B) Cloaca (C) Rectum (D) Ureter
15. Diameter of the renal afferent vessel is
(A) Same as that of efferent (B) Smaller than that of efferent
(C) Larger than that of efferent (D) There is no efferent vessel
16. The part of a nephron which opens into the collecting duct is/are
(A) DCT (B) DCT and PCT (C) Henle’s loop (D) glomerulus
17. Maximum water absorption occurs in
(A) PCT (B) DCT (C) Collecting duct (D) None of these
18. Substrate which is not filtered through glomerulus:
(A) Water (B) Glucose (C) Blood corpuscles (D) Urea
19. Which one of the following mechanism would account for increased urine production?
(A) Decreased amount of antidiuretic hormone secretion.
(B) Increased aldosterone production
(C) Increased blood pressure
(D) The proximal tubules reabsorbing more water
20. Difference between glomerular filtrate and plasma is of:
(A) Proteins (B) Potassium
(C) First is white whereas latter is yellow (D) First is yellow whereas latter is white
21. The urine under normal conditions does not contain glucose because:
(A) The normal blood sugar is fructose
(B) Glucose of blood is not filtered in the glomerulus
(C) Glucose in glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the uriniferous tubules
(D) Glucose in glomerular filtrate is converted into glycogen.
SECTION (G) : CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

1 Hormone that stimulates heart beat is
(A) Thyroxine (B) Adrenaline (C) Glucagon (D) Gastrin
2 The hormone that promotes reabsorption of water from glomerular filtrate is –

(A) oxytocin (B) relaxin (C) vasopressin (D) calcitonin
3 In human body which is the master gland ?

(A) Adrenal (B) Pancreas (C) Pituitary (D) None of the above
NSEJS
4 Hypersecretion of growth hormone in a period of growth leads to
(A) Midget (B) Anemia (C) Acromegaly (D) Cushing syndrome
5 Failure or reduced insulin production causes

(A) Diabetes insipidus (B) Diabetes mellitus (C) both A and B (D) Cretinism
6 Reflex action in a body is not

(A) inborn (B) automatic & quick (C) voluntary (D) protective in nature
7 Synapse is a close proximity of -

(A) two veins (B) two arteries (C) two lymphatics (D) two neurons.
8 The largest part of brain is

(A) Corpora quadrigemina (B) Medulla oblongata
(C) Cerebellum (D) Cerebrum
9 The centre for the sense of smell in brain is -

(A) cerebellum (B) cerebrum (C) midbrain (D) olfactory lobes
10 In voluntary actions are controlled by -

(A) Medulla oblongata (B) cerebrum (C) midbrain (D) olfactory lobes
SECTION (H) : MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION

1. Talus, calcaneum are found in :-
(1) Hind limb of frog (2) Hind limb of Human
(3) Fore limb of man (4) Fore limb of rabbit
2. Part of pectoral girdle is:-

(1) Ileum (2) Glenoid cavity
(3) Acetabulum (4) Sternum
3. Obturator foramen present between:-

(1) Ilium & Ischium (2) Ischium & Pubis
(3) Ilium & pubis (4) None
4. Study of joints known as:-

(1) Osteology (2) Arthrology (3) Craniology (4) Kinesiology
5. Pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and limb bones constitute:

(1) Visceral skeleton (2) Outer skeleton
(3) Axial skeleton (4) Appendicular skeleton
6. Glenoid cacity is found in :

(1) Pelvic girdle (2) Skull
(3) Pectoral girdle (4) Sternum
7. Acromion process is part of :

(1) Vertebral column (2) Pelvic girdle
(3) Femur (4) Pectoral girdle
NSEJS
8. Pelvic girdle consists of :
(1) Ilium (2) Ilium and ischium
(3) Ilium, ischium and pubis (4) Ischium and pubis
9. Coracoid is a part of :
(1) Forelimb (2) Skull (3) Scapula (4) Pelvic girdle
10. Cranium of man is made up of

(1) 8 bones (2) 12 bones (3) 16 bones (4) 14 bones
11. Which of the following is a sessamoid bone ?

(1) Pelvic (2) Patella (3) Pterigoid (4) Pectoral girdle
12. The number of floating ribs in human body

(1) 6 pairs (2) 5 pairs (3) 3 pairs (4) 2 pairs
13. How many bones are present in human skull ?

(1) 32 (2) 22 (3) 12 (4) 42
14. Which one of the following is the skull bone?

(1) Atlas (2) Coracoid and frontal
(3) Pterygoid and frontal (4) Aretynoid and pariental
15. Vertebrochondral rib in man are :-

(1) 8th, 9th & 10th rib (2) 7th, 8th, 9th rib
(3) 9th, 10th & 11th rib (4) 6th, 7th & 8th rib
16. Symphysis is made of

(1) Fibrocartilage (2) Synovial fluid
(3) Elastic cartilage (4) Hyaline cartilage
17. Saddle joint occurs between

(1) Carpal and first metacarpal (2) Femur and pelvic girdle
(3) All the vertebrae (4) Phalanges
18. This joint is made for power?

(1) Knee joint (2) Mandibular joint
(3) Suture in cranium (4) Joint between vertebrae
19. Phalangeal formula for human forelimb is

(1) 33233 (2) 33333 (3) 33433 (4) 23333
20. Elbow joint is an example of
(1) Ball and socket joint (2) Gliding joint
(3) Hinge joint (4) Pivot joint
NSEJS
21. Innominate is
(1) A nerve (2) An artery
(3) A vein (4) A part of skeleton and an artery.
22. Axis vertebra is identified by

(1) Sigmoid notch (2) Odontoid process
(3) Deltoid ridge (4) Centrum
23. The smallest bone of the human body is

(1) Humerus (2) Vertebra (3) Incus (4) Stapes
24. This facial bone is unpaired

(1) Lacrimal (2) Vomer (3) Nasal (4) Palatine
25. It is an outcome of irregularities in metabolism of nitrogenous waste

(1) osteoporosis (2) osteo-arthritis
(3) gouty arthritis (4) rheumatoid arthritis
26. Which of the following is correct for the given assertion (A) and reason (R)?
Assertion (A) : Knee joint is hinge joint type joint.
Reason (R) : Femur , patella and fibula are associated with knee joint.
(1) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(2) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(3) (A) is true statement but (R) is false.
(4) Both (A) and (R) are false
27. In human beings the cranium is formed by

(1) ten bones of which two are paired
(2) eight bones of which two are paired
(3) fourteen bones of which six are paired
(4) twelve bones of which four are paired
28. Which of the following is wrong statement about hyoid bone?

(1) one in number
(2) U-shaped
(3) Not attached with any other bone of the body
(4) Present at the top of the buccal cavity
29. The clavicle articulates with of scapula
(1) Acromian process (2) Glenoid cavity
(3) Acetabulum cavity (4) Ball and socket joint
30. Which one is a flat bone ?

(1) Scapula (2) Carpal (3) Patella (4) Tarsals
31. Largest mammalian vertebra is :-

(1) Thoracic (2) Sacral (3) Lumbar (4) Cervical
NSEJS
32. Deltoid Ridge is found in which one of following bone:-
(1) Radius (2) Ulna (3) Humerus (4) Femur
33. Synovial fluid is secreted by :

(1) Blood (2) Cartilage (3) Bone (4) Synovial membrane
34. Digital formula of foot of Human is :-

(1) 03332 (2) 03333 (3) 03322 (4) 23333
35. Heaviest vertebra in man is ;-

(1) Atlas (2) Axis (3) Lumbar (4) Thoracic
36. A joint between humerus and radio Ulna is :-

(1) Ball & socket (2) Pivot (3) Gliding (4) Hinge
37. Demifacets present at:-

(1) Thoracic vertebra (2) Lumbar vertebra
(3) Sacral vertebra (4) Cervical vertebra except C7
38. True ribs are 7 pairs in:-

(1) Rabbit (2) Man (3) Both (4) None
39. Saddle joint is present in:-

(1) Human (2) Rabbit (3) Both (4) Frog
40. Presence of obturator foramen feature of:-

(1) Frog (2) Cockroach (3) Rabbit (4) None
41. Vertebro-arterial canal occurs in :

(1) Cervical vertebrae (2) Lumbar vertebae
(3) Thoracic vertebrae (4) Sacral vertebrae
42. In human beings, the second cervical vertebra helps in rotatory movements of head through
knob-like process called :
(1) Prezygapohysis (2) Postzygapolysis
(3) Olecranon process (4) Odontoid process
43. Zygomatic is part of:

(1) Pelvic girdle (2) Skull
(3) Pectoral girdle (4) Vertebral column
44. Which one of the following is the correct description of a certain part of a normal human
skeleton ?
(1) First vertebra is axis which articulates with the occipital condyles.
(2) The 9th and 10th pairs of ribs are called the floating ribs.
(3) Glenoid cavity is a depression to which the thigh bone articulates.
(4) Parietal bone and the temporal bone of the skull are joined by fibrous joint.
NSEJS
45. An acromian process is characteristically found in the:-
(1) Pectoral girdle of mammals (2) Sperm of mammals
(3) Pelvic girdle of mammals (4) Skull of frog
EXERCISE # 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Section (A) : NUTRITION
1. In amoeba the digestion of food is
(A) Extracellular (B) intracellular (C) intercellular (D) none of the above
2. Ptyalin enzyme is secreted by

(A) Salivary gland (B) liver (C) oesophagus (D) stomach
3. Enzyme which breaks up starch into sugar is-

(A) Hydrolase (B) amylase (C) lipase (D) nuclease
4. Largest gland in the body is

(A) Liver (B) pancreas (C) gastric gland (D) adrenal
5. Bile is stored in -
(A) Gall bladder (B) bile duct (C) liver (D) pancreas
6. Which one does not produce any digestive enzyme?

(A) Pancreas (B) Liver (C) Stomach (D) Duodenum
7. Food is stored in the liver and muscles as

(A) Glycogen (B) starch (C) fat (D) cholesterol
8. Pepsin digests
(A) Proteins in stomach (B) carbohydrates in duodenum
(C) Proteins in duodenum (D) fats in ileum
9. Fat present below the skin surface in our body, acts as a barrier against
(A) Loss of salts from the body
(B) Loss of essential body fluids
(C) Loss of heat from the body
(D) Entry of harmful micro–organisms from the environment
10. The digestion of food is completed in the

(A) Ileum (B) duodenum (C) stomach (D) large intestine
Section (B) : RESPIRATION

1. The percentage of O2 in inhaled air is about
(A) 21% (B) 16% (C) 79% (D) 4.4%
2. How many lobes are there in human lungs?

(A) 2 in left and 3 in right lungs (B) 3 in left and 2 in right lungs
(C) 3 in each lungs (D) 2 in each lungs
3. At high altitudes where there is less oxygen, the human body adapts itself by
(A) producing more red blood cells (B) producing more white blood cells
(C) producing more blood platelets (D) producing less number of RBC.
NSEJS
4. Structure which prevents the entry of food into the wind pipe is -
(A) pharynx (B) glottis (C) epiglottis (D) gullet
5. Pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid anaerobically in -

(A) liver (B) muscles (C) brain (D) skin
6. The covering of the lung is called

(A) Pericardium (B) Perichondrium (C) Pleura membrane (D) Peritoneum
7. Which of the following shows branchial respiration?

(A) Man (B) Fish (C) Snake (D) Birds
8. Which of the following is a characteristic of respiratory organ?

(A) Thin walled (B) Vascular (C) Moist (D) All of the above
9. Respiratory quotient is
(A) CO2 /O2 (B) O2/CO2 (C) CO2/N2 (D) N2/CO2
10. Oxygen is carried by-

(A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes (C) platelets (D) none of these
11. Epiglottis guards the opening of-

(A) eustachian tube (B) glottis (C) larynx (D) internal ear
12. Skin is an accessory organ of respiration in-
(A) humans (B) frog (C) rabbit (D) lizard
13. The blood coming out of lungs is richer than that entering into lungs in
(A) CO2 (B) O2 (C) both (D) none of these
14. The exchange of gases between the external air and the blood occurs in the.
(A) bronchus (B) bronchiole (C) trachea (D) alveoli
15. Maximum amount of energy is released by the

(A) conversion of glucose into lactic acid
(B) conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid
(C) oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water
(D) conversion of sucrose to glucose
16. When there is an increase of carbon dioxide in the blood

(A) heart beat is increased
(B) heart beat is decreased
(C) breathing rate and heart beat are increased
(D) breathing rate is decreased and heart rate is increased
Section (C) : TRANSPORTATION

1. The clotting of blood requires –
(A) Vit K and Calcium (B) Vit K and Potassium
(C) Calcium and Potassium (D) None of the above
2. The erythrocytes of A, B, AB and O blood groups have distinct components on the surface. They are –
(A) Lipid (B) Fats (C) Carbohydrates (D) Antigen
NSEJS
3. Which are not true cells in the blood?
(A) Platelets (B) Monocytes (C) Basophils (D) Neutrophils
4. The first heart sound is produced when:

(A) Intraventricular pressure decreases (B) semilunar valve snaps shut
(C) Bicuspid and tricuspid valve close quickly (D) diastole begins
5. Mitral valve in mammals guards the opening between–

(A) Stomach and intestine (B) Pulmonary vein and left auricle
(C) Right atrium and right ventricle (D) Left atrium and left ventricle
6. Bundle of HIS is a network of -

(A) Nerve fibres found throughout the heart.
(B) Muscle fibres distributed throughout the heart walls
(C) Muscle fibres found only in the ventricular septum.
(D) Nerve fibres distributed in ventricles.
7. The walls of right ventricle are less muscular as compared to those of the left ventricle of a heart
because
(A) The right ventricle receives blood from the body
(B) The right ventricle sends blood to the head
(C) The right ventricle pumps blood to lungs.
(D) The right ventricle pumps blood to the alimentary canal.
8. Tick the wrong statement –

(A) RBC are of red colour and WBC of white colour
(B) Red colour of RBC is because of haemoglobin
(C) Iron is necessary for synthesis of haemoglobin
(D) Erythrocytes are called suicidal bags
11. Systolic pressure of heart is higher than diastolic pressure, because -

(A) Blood is forcefully pumped into arteries by the heart during systole and not during diastole
(B) Arteries offer resistance to the flowing of blood during systole only
(C) Arteries contract during systole only.
(D) Volume of blood in heart is greater during systole than during diastole.
12. Persons suffering from high blood pressure should take the following precaution to avoid excessive rise
in their blood pressure –
(A) Sleep as much as possible (B) avoid standing
(C) Increase their weight (D) avoid emotional disturbances and excitement.
13. A vein differs from an artery in having–

(A) Narrower lumen (B) strongly muscular wall
(C) Pigmented wall to give it a dark appearance (D) valves to control direction of flow of blood.
14. Both pulmonary and renal arteries–

(A) Contain oxygenated blood (B) have internal valves
(C) Deliver CO2 to the organs they supply (D) have thick wall and narrow lumen
NSEJS
Section(D) : EXCRETION
1. A man takes large amount of proteins. He is likely to excrete a great amount of –
(A) Urea (B) Sugar (C) Uric acid (D) None of these
2. Kidney of a mammal resembles contractile vacuole of amoeba in expelling out–

(A) Salt (B) glucose (C) excess water (D) urea and uric acid
3. Which of the two organs of the body are most important for homeostasis?
(A) Skin and liver (B) Liver & thyroid gland
(C) Liver and Kidneys (D) Kidneys and spleen
4. The term haematuria is used to describe-

(A) Blood cancer (B) Presence of red blood cells in urine
(C) Internal bleeding (D) Blood poisoning
5. Inmammals, the urinary bladder opens into -

(A) Uterus (B) urethra (C) vestibule (D) ureter
6. Urea is produced from ammonia in the body of rabbit or man in–

(A) Liver (B) urinary bladder (C) kidneys (D) blood
7. The yellow pigment derived from haem break down and excreted by kidneys is:
(A) Uric Acid (B) Urochrome (C) Cholesterol (D) melanin
8. Kidneys regulate the amount of -

(A) Salts (B) hormones (C) proteins (D) enzymes
9. A brush border is formed in:

(A) Distal convoluted tubule (B) Proximal convoluted tubule
(C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Loop of Henle
10. During ultrafiltration from the capillaries of the glomerulus in to Bowman’s capsule, which of the
following substances do no filter but remain in the blood?
(A) Water and glucose (B) Urea and blood proteins
(C) Blood proteins and blood cells (D) Fats and salts
11. Filtration of blood occurs in –

(A) Bowman’s capsule (B) loop of Henle (C) neck of nephrons (D) renal papillae
12. Inwhich part of excretory system of mammals can you first use the term “urine” for contained fluid–
(A) Bowman’s capsule (B) loop of Henle (C) collecting tubule (D) urinary bladder
13. Creatinine the waste product closely regulated by kidneys is the end product of the metabolism of–
(A) Ammonia (B) muscles (C) nucleotide (D) anaerobic
SECTION(E) : CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

1. The first hormone discovered was :
(A) Thymosine (B) Secretin (C) Duodenum (D) Thyroxine
2. Hormones are :
(A) Chemically all are steroid
(B) Stored in body in liver and thyroid
(C) Harmful only in excess
(D) Similar so that hormones of one species perform the same function in other species
NSEJS
3. While dwarfism and cretinism suffering child are somewhat of the same height, the main difference is
that :
(A) Cretins have normal intelligence while dwarf do not
(B) Cretins are mentally retarded
(C) The head of cretin is especially large
(D) The dwarf have elongated chin
4. Hyperactivity of which gland result in acne at the time of adolescence :
(A) Pituitary (B) Sebaceous gland (C) Sweat gland (D) All of these
5. The production of which hormone in adults leads to a gorilla - like appearance called as Acromegaly :
(A) Adrenaline (B) Growth hormone (C) Thyroxine (D) Testosterone
6. Find the odd one out in the series given below :
Salivary gland; Gastric glands; Tear gland; Thyroid gland
(A) Salivary gland (B) Gastric glands (C) Tear gland (D) Thyroid gland
7. Effect of thyroxine on B.M.R. is :
(A) Increases (B) Decreases (C) Uncertain (D) No effect
8. Hormone responsible for embryo implantation and formation of placenta is :
(A) Adrenaline (B) Estradiol (C) Estrogen (D) Progesterone
9. A woman started developing male characteristics. It may be due to :
(A) Overproduction of adrenal androgens (B) Overproduction of estrogen
(C) Damage to mammary glands (D) Damage to posterior pituitary
10. Which hormone would be secreted when a mad dog is running after you :
(A) Testosterone (B) Adrenaline (C) Thyroxine (D) Thymosin
11. The hormone which reduces the sodium loss through urine and sweat is :
(A) Calcitonin (B) Aldosterone (C) Parathormone (D) Thyroxine
12. The dendrites of typical vertebrate neuron, compared to neuron’s axon are generally :
(A) Longer (B) Larger in diameter (C) More mylinated (D) More branched
13. Which sequence best describes a simple reflex arc such as the knee-jerk reflex ?
(A) Sensory neuron → interneuron
(B) Sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron
(C) Sensory neuron → motor neuron → interneuron
(D) Sensory neuron → effector cell → motor neuron
14. Which of the following is not a structure in the hind brain ?
(A) Medulla oblongata (B) Hypothalamus (C) Cerebellum (D) Pons
15. The part of Hind brain that is responsible for hand eye coordination is the :
(A) Pons (B) Cerebrum (C) Medulla oblongata (D) Cerebellum
16. How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in a human ?
(A) 8 (B) 12 (C) 25 (D) 31
17. Sympathetic nervous system induces :
(A) Heart beat (B) Secretion of saliva
(C) Secretion of digestive juices (D) All of these
18. Pineal body attaches to :
(A) Diencephalon (B) Cerebellum
(C) Ventral side of cerebellum (D) Lateral side of cerebrum
19. Which of the following is not a reflex action :
(A) Coughing (B) Sneezing (C) Reading (D) Sweating
NSEJS
EXERCISE # 3
IJSO STAGE-I (PREVIOUS YEARS)

SECTION(A) : NUTRITION
1. The feature indicating omnivorous nature of man is (IJSO-Stage-I/2011)
(A) Presence of canines and molars (B) long intestine and vestigial appendix
(C) Ability to taste salty and sweet material (D) spacious stomach and caecum
2. Complete digestive juice having enzymes to digest all types of organic materials is secreted by -
(IJSO-Stage-I/2011)
(A) Salivary gland and pancreatic gland. (B) Gastric gland and pancreatic gland.
(C) Salivary gland and intestinal gland. (D) Pancreatic gland and intestinal gland
3. Human body cannot digest carbohydrate in the form of - (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)

(A) Sugars (B) starch (C) cellulose (D) glycogen
4. The general indigestion experienced by a patient suffering from obstructive jaundice is due to:
(IJSO-Stage-I/2014)
(A) The lack of emulsification of lipids
(B) The acceleration of intestinal peristalsis reducing the retention time for food
(C) The low pH in the intestine not supporting optimal activity of enzymes.
(D) The diffusion of bile pigments in blood suppressing secretion of digestive juices
5. The following graphs represent acitivities of different enzymes (A to D) at different temperature and
pH: (IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
Observe the graphs carefully and infer which of the following options given below (most likely)
represents correctly the combinations A.B.C. and D.
(A) A-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria B-typical human enzyme: C-pepsin (stomach enzyme):
D-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme)
(B) A-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria B-typical human enzyme: C-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme):
D-Trypsin (stomach enzyme)
(C) A-a typical human enzyme: B-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria: C-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme): D-
pepsin (stomach enzyme)
(D) A-a typical human enzyme: B-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria: C-pepsin (stomach enzyme):
D-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme)
6. In humans, the digestion of carbohydrates happens/takes place in the following parts of the digestive
system: (IJSO-Stage-I/2015)
(A) Mouth, stomach and small intestine (B) Small intestine alone
NSEJS
(C) Mouth and small intestine (D) Stomach and small intestine
NSEJS
7. If a small part of the esophagus of a person is excised, the consequence would be the person will have
to eat (IJSO-Stage-I/2016)
(A) Larger portion of food with large time interval
(B) Small portions of food at small time interval
(C) Small portions of food at large time interval
(D) Majorly subsist on liquid diet
8. Which of the following feature indicates omnivorous feeding of human species? (IJSO-Stage-I/2017)
(A) Presence of canines as well as premolars and molars
(B) Presence of appendix
(C) Presence of 11th and 12th pair of ribs
(D) Presence of opposable thumb
SECTION (B): RESPIRATION

1. Raju Sharma, a 10th standard student participated in 100 meter sprint. During running he developed
painful muscle contraction and fell down. The physical education teacher rushed to him and gave a hot
water massage. Raju Sharma slowly recovered from the cramp. The teacher explained the physiology
behind the cramp and the subsequent relief. Identify the right explanation. (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
(A) Because of the quick movement, the muscles loses its elasticity and are stressed. The inflammation
developed during this process causes cramp. After hot water massage the inflammation subsides
and the pain gets relieved.
(B) During vigorous physical activity, aerobic respiration in the muscles increases which leads to the
accumulation of more CO2 in the muscles. This causes cramps. Later CO2 was relieved upon hot
water massage resulting in pain relief.
(C) During vigorous physical activity, lactic acid accumulates in the muscles due to anaerobic
respiration. This causes the cramps. Hot water massage improves the circulation of blood and O2 in
the muscles. As a result lactic acid is converted into CO2 and water. Thus the pain gets relieved.
(D) During quick movements, the nerves will not co-operate with the muscles. There is a stimulus
which is taken to spinal cord and the effector function was done by motor neurons which cause
cramp. On hot water massage the stimulus was subsided. Thus the pain gets relieved.
2. The various parts of the human respiratory system are given below:
(i) Nasal passage (ii) Pharynx (iii) Wind pipe (iv) Bronchus
(v) Bronchioles (vi) Alveoli
Identify the right sequence of air passage during exhalation. (IJSO/stage-I/2015)
(A) vi, v, ii, iv, iii, i (B) vi, iv,v, iii, ii, i (C) vi, v, iv, iii, ii, i (D) vi, v, ii, iii, iv, i
3. During gaseous exchange in the alveoli, what happens to nitrogen ? (IJSO/stage-I/2016)

(A) There is no net nitrogen exchange, as nitrogen is filtered out by the alveoli.
(B) The nitrogen is absorbed by the alveolus to form amino acids.
(C) The nitrogen is filtered out by the alveolus, as the nitrogen molecule is too large to cross the gaps in
the capillaries
(D) There is no net nitrogen exchange, as the blood is saturated with nitrogen
4. Which of the following is true about ATP (IJSO/stage-I/2016)

(A) It is derivative of one of the nitrogenous bases that form DNA
(B) It splits into ADP and phosphate, and the energy produced is used by muscle cells to contract
(C) It is produced in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
(D) All of the above
5. If the cell is using less oxygen molecules than the molecules of carbon dioxide evolved in respiration,
the substrate for respiration has to be: (IJSO/stage-I/2017)
(A) simple sugars (B) organic acids (C) fatty acids (D) cholesterol
NSEJS
SECTION (C): TRANSPORTATION

1. Which of the following sequence depicts the flow of blood in human circulatory system?
(IJSO Stage-I/ 2015)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
2. Among the following, which is not true about vaccines? (IJSO Stage-I/ 2015)
(A) Vaccines contain dead microbial cells or their parts.
(B) Vaccines contain antibiotics to prevent diseases.
(C) Vaccine contain special proteins which evoke immune system against disease.
(D) Vaccines contain inactivated micro-organisms.
3. How many times would a red blood cell pass through the heart during one complete cycle?
(A) Once (B) Twice (C) 4 times (D) 72 times
4. The blood grouping system is an example of 'multiple allelism. In order to find out the gene products of
various gene variants, different enzymes (codes used for the purpose of experimentation are X and Y)
from four blood samples were assayed. The enzymes were quantified and the information obtained
from these experiments is given in percentages in the following table. indicates presence of an enzyme
and indicates the absence of that enzyme from the blood sample. The standard codes for dominant and
recessive alleles are considered. Identify the blood groups of subjects and choose the correct option of
their genotypes from given options. (In table: + means present, – means absent):
Subjects→ Ramesh Ali Sophia Balwinder

Enzymes  P/A % P/A % P/A % P/A %
X + 50 + 50 + 100 – –
Y – – + 50 – – + 100
NSEJS
(A) IAi, ii, IBi, IAIB (B) IAi, IAIB, IAIA, IBIB
(C) IBi, IAIB,ii, IBi (C) IBi, ii, IAIB,IAi
SECTION(D) : EXCRETION
1. Urea is the principle excretory waste in larval as well as adult phases of: (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) Cockroach (B) Crab (C) Frog (D) Starfish
2. What is the mechanism used by the kidneys to remove waste products from the body?
(IJSO/stage I/2016)
(A) Nephrons convert nitrogenous waste to uric acid and pass it out as urine.
(B) Nephrons actively transport uric acid and other nitrogenous waste Â into the proximal and distal
Convoluted tubules, from where it is collected to form urine.
(C) The blood is filtered to retain cells and large plasma proteins within the blood. The remaining
filtrate passes through the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, where needed substances are
reabsorbed.by active transport.
(D) Nephrons filter out the nitrogenous waste which is passed through the proximal and distal
Convoluted tubules and collected by the collecting duct as urine.
SECTION (E): CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

1. When a cell fails to communicate with other cells in multicellular organism, it - (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) becomes cancerous (B) enters mitotic phase
(C) chooses to die (D) is eaten up by other cells
2. On a field trip in North America, students noticed that when threatened, Horned lizards (Genus:
phrynosoma) squirt blood at the attackers. When the professor asked what could have been the reason
behind such behaviour of Horned lizards, one student said that certain sensory receptos had fired and
triggered a neural reflex culminating in increasing the pressure in their sinus cavities until the blood
vessels in the corners of the eyes burst. Another student said that it was just an act to frighten off the
predator. Thus it can be said that (IJSO-Stage-I/2013)
(A) The first response is correct, while the second is incorrect
(B) Both explanations are reasonable and can be scientifically tested.
(C) The first response is biological, while the second is philosophical.
(D) The first explanation is testable as a scientific hypothesis, while the second is not.
3. People residing in coastal area usually do not face the problem of Thyroxin hormone deficiency
because their food intake will be rich in one of the following minerals. (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
(A) sodium (B) chlorine (C) Iodine (D) Phosphorus
4. Suresh accidentally touched silencer of his two wheeler while parking and withdrew his leg
Immediately. Identify the correct order of the flow of message to the brain ? (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
(A) Receptor → Sensory neuron → CNS → Motor neuron → Effectors
(B) Sensory neuron → CNS → Motor neuron → Effectors → Receptors
(C) CNS → Motor neuron → Effectors → Receptors → Sensory neuron
(D) Effectors → Receptors → Sensory neuron → Motor neuron
NSEJS
Answer Key
EXERCISE # 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. D 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. C
6. A 7. C 8. A 9. B 10. B
11. B 12. C 13. B 14. C 15. C
SECTION (B) : RESPIRATION

1. C 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. C
6. A 7. A
SECTION (C) : RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS

1. C 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. A
6. C 7. A 8. B 9. B 10. D
11. B
SECTION (D): TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN

1. B 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. A
6. B 7. D 8. C 9. D 10. B
11. B 12. A
SECTION (E): EXCRETION IN ANIMAL

1. D 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. C
6. A 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. A
11. C 12. A
SECTION (F): HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. C 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. A
6. C 7. A 8. A 9. C 10. C
11. C 12. B 13. D 14. A 15. C
16. A 17. A 18. C 19. A 20. A
21. C
SECTION (G): CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

1. B 2. C 3. C 4. C 5. B
6. C 7. D 8. D 9. D 10. B
SECTION (H) : MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION

1. B 2. B 3. B 4. B 5. D
6. C 7. D 8. C 9. C 10. A
11. B 12. D 13. B 14. C 15. A
16. A 17. A 18. A 19. D 20. C
21. D 22. B 23. D 24. B 25. C
26. C 27. B 28. D 29. A 30. A
31. C 32. C 33. D 34. D 35. C
36. D 37. A 38. C 39. C 40. C
41. A 42. D 43. B 44. D 45. A
NSEJS
EXERCISE # 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B A B A A B A A C A
SECTION (B): RESPIRATION

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. A A A C B C B D A B B B B D C C

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. A D A C D C C D A D D C
SECTION (D): EXCRETION

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. A C C B B A B A B A A C B
SECTION (E) : CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. B D B B B D A D A B B B B B D B D A C
EXERCISE # 3
IJSO STAGE-I (PREVIOUS YEARS)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. A D C A D C B A
SECTION (B): RESPIRATION SECTION (E): CONTROL

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS
Ans. C C D D C Ques. 1 2 3 4
Ans. C B C A
Ques. 1 2 3 4 SECTION (D): EXCRETION
Ans. A B B B Ques. 1 2
Ans. C C
PW Web/App - https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
Library- https://smart.link/sdfez8ejd80if

Human Physiology 01 - Theory Notes - PDF Only - NSEJS 2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Human Physiology 01 - Theory Notes - PDF Only - NSEJS 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

(i) Nutrition in Amoeba:

I. Ingestion: Since it is unicellular so a single cell is responsible

Fig.: Digestive System of Human

II. Histology of alimentary canal

Fig.: T.S. of Alimentary Canal

❖ These are of 3 types:

5. Intestinal glands: They secrete intestinal juice and mucus.

IV. Process of Nutrition: This system involves following process:

Fig.: A Section of small intestine showing mucosa showing crypts of leiberkuhn

V. Disorders of digestive system

S. No. Breathing Cellular Respiration

(b) Differences between respiration and combustion:

(c) Types of Respiration :

It is called as Aerobic respiration.

Difference between aerobic & anaerobic respiration :

(d) Step of respiration :

Diffusion : Exchange of gases takes

Tracheal Respiration : Exchange of

Some important characteristics of respiratory organs of animals are :

(i) Human respiratory tract :

Figure : HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Can you think why ?

Fig. : Bronchial intercom inside lung

Respiratory System of man

 Epiglottis : It prevents the entry of food into the trachea.

Fig.: Transportation of gases

Fig. : Transport of Carbon dioxide & Oxygen

Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration

(vi) Net production of ATP in glycolysis is 2ATP + 6ATP = 8 ATP.

(B) Kreb’s Cycle :

(C) Electron Transport System or ETS :

• Besides this CO2 and H2O are also released.

➢ CONTROL OF BREATHING IN HUMAN

SOME RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

Can you think why ?

 Examples of circulatory schemes.

(c) Double circulation: reptiles

3. Functions of Blood: Blood performs the following functions:

Fig.: Structure of Heart

IV. Types of circulation:

Fig.: Common diagram showing events of both auricles & Ventricles

• In a single cardiac cycle of man -

1. “Ventricular-systole”- It is an important process because during it the blood is pumped out of

VII. Electrocardiogram (ECG)

Fig.: Diagrammatic representation of a standard ECG

VIII. Regulation of Cardiac Activity:

IX. Disorders of circulatory system:

(ii) Lymphatic System:

vessels and nodes.

• Lymphatic system runs parallel to the veins.

lymphatic capillaries are blind.

kill the germs and produce antibodies.

Excretory Organs and Main Nitrogenous Wastes of Different Animal Groups

(ii) Osmoregulation in fresh water fish

Salt is transported from the blood into secretory tubules,

➢ HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

(a) Human Excretory Products:

(b) Human excretory System:

Fig.: Excretory System of Human, L.S. of Kidney

1. Bowman’s capsule: It is a single-cell thick, double walled cup-shaped structure present in

(c) Mechanism of Urine formation:

(e) Chemical Composition of Urine: