Human Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 11

Digestive System
Chapter 11

Digestive System
Introduction

Every cell of the body requires nutrients, yet most cells cannot leave their position in the body and
travel to a food source. Therefore, the food must be converted to a usable form and then delivered
to the cells. The digestive system with the assistance of the circulatory system, is a complex set of
organs, glands and ducts that work together to transform food into nutrients for cells.
Food is taken into the digestive system, where it is broken down into smaller particles. Enzymes
in the digestive system break the particles down into very small molecules, which are absorbed in
the blood and transported all over the body.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. List the major functions of the digestive system.

2. Describe the anatomy of various parts of the digestive system.
3. Distinguish the differences between deciduous teeth and permanent teeth. Name the
different kinds of teeth.
4. Describe the major salivary glands. Compare their structures and functions.
5. Describe the major functions of the liver and pancreas.

Duration

Chapter 11: Digestive System = 8 hours

(6 hours discussion; 2 hours
assessment)
Lesson Proper

Functions of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion.
The consumption of solid or liquid food, usually through the mouth.
2. Digestion.
The breakdown of large organic molecules into smaller molecules than can be absorbed.
Digestion occurs through mechanical and chemical means.
3. Absorption.
The movement of molecules out of the digestive tract and into the blood or lymphatic
system. The epithelial cells that line the lumen of the small intestine absorb the small
molecules of nutrients (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and
water) that result from the digestive process.
4. Elimination.
The removal of undigested material, such as fiber from food, plus other waste products
from the body as feces.

Digestive System
• The digestive system consists of the digestive tract or gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
• The specific portions of the digestive tract include: (1) oral cavity, (2) pharynx, (3)
esophagus, (4) stomach, (5) small and large intestines, and (6) the anus.
• The specific associated organs of the digestive system are: (1) the salivary glands,
which empty into the oral cavity, (2) the liver and (3) the pancreas.
• The liver and pancreas empty into the small intestine.
• The inner lining of the digestive tract serves as a protective barrier to indigestible and
harmful materials while allowing for the specific absorption of nutrients across the
wall of the digestive tract.
• Once across the wall of the digestive tract, the nutrients enter the blood and are
distributed to the tissues of the body.

Anatomy of the Oral Cavity

1. The lips and cheeks are involved in mastication and speech.
• The mastication begins the process of mechanical
digestion
• Breaks down large food into smaller pieces.
• Lips and cheeks move the food around within the oral
cavity and holds the food in place while the teeth crush or
tear it.
• Cheeks also help form words during the speech process.
2. The tongue is involved in speech, taste, mastication and swallowing.
• Frenulum: a thin fold of tissue that
attaches the tongue to the anterior
attachment of the floor.
• The anterior 2/3 of the tongue is covered
by papillae, some of which contain taste
buds.
• The posterior 1/3 of the tongue is devoid
of papillae and has only a few scattered
taste buds.
• The posterior portion contains a large amount of lymphatic tissue which helps
form the lingual tonsil.

3. There are 32 permanent teeth, including incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.
 • Adult teeth are permanent or second teeth.
• Baby teeth are called first teeth, deciduous teeth or milk teeth.
• Located in the mandible and maxillae.
• Teeth divided into 4 quadrants: RU, RL, LU, LL.
Each tooth consists of:
a. Crown: visible part of the tooth.
b. Neck: small region between crown and
root.
c. Root: largest region of the tooth and
anchors it in the jawbone.
d. Pulp cavity: filled with blood
vessels, nerves and connective
tissue called pulp.
e. Pulp cavity is surrounded by a
living, cellular, calcified tissue
called dentin.
f. The dentin of the tooth crown is
covered by an extremely hard,
acellular substance called enamel,
which protects the tooth against
abrasion and acids produced by
bacteria in the mouth.
g. Cementum: helps anchor the tooth in
the jaw.
h. Alveoli: holds teeth in place, along the
alveolar processes of the mandible and
maxillae.
i. Gingiva (gums): covers the
alveolar processes.
j. Periodontal ligaments: secures the
teeth in the alveoli by embedding into
the cementum.

Dental Caries

• Also known as tooth decay.

• Result of a breakdown of enamel by acids produced by bacteria on the tooth surface.
Periodontal Disease

• Inflammation and degeneration of the periodontal ligaments, gingiva and alveolar

bone.
• Most common cause of tooth loss in adults.
• Infection may occur in a tooth, in a bone, or in the surrounding soft tissues.

4. The roof of the oral cavity is divided into the hard and soft palates.
Palate: roof of the oral cavity.
• Separates oral cavity from the nasal
cavity.
• Prevents food from passing into the
nasal cavity during chewing and
swallowing.
a. Hard palate: anterior part, contains bone.
b. Soft palate: posterior part, consists of skeletal
muscle and connective tissue.
c. Uvula: posterior extension of the soft palate.

Erosion and Perforation of the palate because of snorting too much cocaine.
 5. Salivary glands produce serous and mucous secretions. Salivary glands produce saliva.
Saliva is a mixture of serous (watery) and mucous fluids. 3 major pairs:
a. Parotid glands: the largest.
Located anterior to each ear.
b. Submandibular glands: produces more
serous than mucous secretions.
c. Sublingual glands: smallest of the
three. Produces primarily mucous
secretions. Lies immediately below the
mucous membrane in the floor of the
oral cavity.

Mumps
▪ Inflammation of the parotid gland.
▪ Caused by viral infection.
▪ The virus causing mumps can also infect other
structures. Mumps in an adult male may involve the
testes and can cause sterility.
6. Saliva
▪ Saliva secretes approximately 1L per day.
▪ Saliva neutralizes the pH in the mouth, which reduces harmful effects of bacterial acids
on tooth enamel.
▪ Prevents bacterial infections in the mouth by washing the oral cavity with a mildly
antibacterial enzyme, called lysosome.
▪ Secretion is regulated by the ANS. Parasympathetic activity increases activity of salivary
glands to the thought of food, odors or sensation of hunger. Sympathetic activity like
being scared stimulates dry mouth with thick mucous.
▪ Serous part of saliva: contains salivary amylase, which breaks down starch.
▪ Mucous secretions contain a large amount of mucin, a proteoglycan that gives a
lubricating quality to the secretions of the salivary glands.
PHARYNX
3 regions:

1. Nasopharynx
2. Oropharynx
3. Laryngopharynx

• Connects the mouth to the esophagus.

• Normally, only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx carry food to the esophagus.

ESOPHAGUS
• The esophagus connects the pharynx to the stomach.
• Muscular tube lined with moist stratified squamous
epithelium about 25 cm long.
• Upper and lower esophageal sphincters regulate
movement.
• Numerous mucous glands produce a thick, lubricating
mucus that coats the inner surface of the esophagus.

Swallowing
1. Voluntary phase of swallowing: a bolus of food is
moved by the tongue from the oral cavity to the pharynx.
2. Pharyngeal phase of swallowing: soft palate closes the nasopharynx, and the epiglottis
closes the opening into the larynx. Pharyngeal muscles elevate the pharynx and larynx
and then move the bolus to the esophagus.
3. Esophageal phase of swallowing: a wave of constriction (peristalsis) moves the food
down the esophagus to the stomach.
Peritoneum
1. Peritoneum: serous membrane that covers the walls of the
abdominal cavity and abdominal organs.
2. Visceral peritoneum or serosa: serous membranes that
covers the organs.
3. Parietal peritoneum: serous membrane that lines the wall
of the abdominal cavity.
Mesenteries

1. Mesenteries: Connective tissue sheets that holds many organs of the abdominal cavity in
place. Also known as the mesentery proper, associated with the small intestine.
2. Lesser omentum: connects the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver and
diaphragm.
3. Greater omentum: connects the greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon.
Adipose tissue accumulates in the greater omentum, giving it the appearance of a fat-
filled apron that covers the anterior surface of the abdominal viscera.

Regions of the Stomach

1. Cardia (gastroesophageal):
surrounds the cardiac orifice,
which is the opening between
the esophagus and the
stomach
2. Fundus: most superior part of
the stomach.
3. Body: largest part of the
stomach.
4. Pylorus: opening into the
small intestine.
Layers of the stomach
The stomach consists of 4 histological layers or tunics from interior to exterior, called:

1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
externa
4. Serosa

1. Mucosa

• Consists of wrinkled ridges called gastric folds or rugae.

• During distension of the organ, the gastric folds disappear.
• Along the lesser curvature of the stomach, a temporary, continuous furrow called gastric
canal is formed between the gastric folds. This facilitates the passage of saliva and fluids
during swallowing.
 • The mucosa is lined by simple columnar epithelium, which is covered by a protective,
alkaline mucous layer. The epithelial layer contains numerous invaginations,
called gastric pits, that extend deeper into structures called gastric glands.
Epithelial cells

The epithelial cells can be divided into 5 groups:

a. Surface mucous cells: located on the inner surface of the stomach and lining the gastric
pit. Produces mucus to coat and protect the stomach lining.
b. Mucous neck cells: produces mucus.
c. Parietal cells: produces hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.
d. Endocrine cells: produces regulatory chemicals or hormones.
e. Chief cells: produces pepsinogen, a pre-cursor of the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin.

Secretions of the Stomach

As food enters the stomach, the food is mixed with stomach secretions to become a semifluid
mixture called chyme.
Stomach secretions include:
a. Hydrochloric acid: produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach. The acid kills
microorganisms and activates the enzyme pepsin.
 b. Pepsin: breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form smaller peptide chains. Pepsin exhibits
optimum enzymatic activity at a pH of 2.0
c. Mucus: a thick layer that lubricates the epithelial cells of the stomach wall and protects
them from the damaging effect of chyme and pepsin. Irritation of the stomach mucosa
stimulates the secretion of a greater volume of mucus.
d. Intrinsic factor: binds with Vit B12 and makes it more readily absorbed in the small
intestine. Vit B12 is important in DNA synthesis and in RBC production.
2. Submucosa
Consists of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves.

3. Muscularis Externa
The muscularis layer of the stomach is different from other
regions of the digestive tract in that it consists of three layers:
a. Longitudinal: situated in the two curvatures of the
stomach.
b. Circular: plays an important role in forming the pyloric
sphincter.
c. Oblique: located throughout the entire organ and works in
unison with the other layers to produce physical motion
and contractions of the stomach required for digestion.
4. Serosa
Consists of the visceral peritoneum that covers the stomach.
Movement in the Stomach
▪ Mixing waves: weak contractions, that
thoroughly mix ingested foods with
stomach secretions to form chyme.
▪ Peristaltic waves: stronger
contractions, forces the chyme toward and
through the pyloric sphincter into the
duodenum.
▪ Distention of the stomach increases gastric
motility, which increases emptying.
SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine is divided into:
1. Duodenum: 25cm long. The common bile duct
from the liver and the pancreatic duct from the
pancreas join and empty in the duodenum.
2. Jejunum: 2.5m long and makes up 2/5 of the
total length in intestine.
3. Ileum: 3.5m long and makes up 3/5 of the total
length in intestine.
Major function of the small intestine is the absorption of
nutrients. Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and

jejunum.

The small intestine is the major site of digestion and absorption of food, which is accomplished
because of a large surface area.
 1. Circular folds: formed by the mucosa and submucosa, that runs perpendicular to the
long axis of digestive tract.
2. Villi: tiny, fingerlike projections of the mucosa.
3. Microvilli: cells composing the surface of the villi, having numerous cytoplasmic
extensions.

Within the loose connective tissue core of each villus are a blood capillary network and a
lymphatic capillary called the lacteal. These two capillaries are important in transporting
absorbed nutrients.

Cells of Intestinal Glands

The mucosa of the small intestine has 4 major cell types:

1. Absorptive cells
2. Goblet cells
3. Endocrine cells
4. Paneth cells
LIVER

3.
2.

1.
4.

The liver consists of 4 lobes:

1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
3. Caudate lobe
4. Quadrate lobe

Falciform Ligament: separates right and left lobes.

Porta: gate through which blood vessels, ducts and nerves enter or exit the liver.
Hepatic artery: delivers oxygenated blood to the liver.
Hepatic portal vein: delivers nutrient-rich blood from the digestive tract to the liver.
Hepatic veins: where blood exits the liver into the inferior vena cava.

Functions of the LIVER

1. Digestion: Bile neutralizes stomach acid and emulsifies fats, which facilitates fat
digestion.
2. Excretion: Bile contains cholesterol, fats and bile pigments (bilirubin) that result from
hemoglobin breakdown.
3. Nutrient storage: liver cells remove sugar from the blood and store it in a form of
glycogen; they also store fat, Vit A, B12, D, E, K), copper and iron.
4. Detoxification of harmful chemicals: Liver cells remove ammonia and convert it to urea.
 5. Synthesis of new molecules: the liver synthesizes blood proteins such as albumin,
fibrinogen, globulins and clotting factors.
Flow of Bile
1. The hepatic ducts from the
liver lobes combine to form
the common hepatic duct.
2. The common hepatic duct
combines with the
cystic duct from the
gallbladder to form the
common bile duct.
3. The common bile duct joins
the pancreatic duct.
4. The combined duct
empties into the
duodenum at the
duodenal papilla.
5. Pancreatic secretions may
also enter the
duodenum through an
accessory pancreatic duct,
which also empties into the
duodenum.

PANCREAS
• An organ which is both and
endocrine and an exocrine gland.
• Its endocrine function is to
control blood nutrient levels.
• Its exocrine function is to
produce digestive enzymes.
• Without pancreatic enzymes, lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates cannot
be adequately ingested.
Digestive enzymes
Protein-digesting enzymes: produced in pancreas but activated in small intestine.
• Trypsin
• Chymotrypsin
• Carboxypeptidase

Polysaccharide enzyme: starts in the mouth.

• Amylase

Lipid-digesting enzyme: secreted by pancreas but activated in small intestine.

• Lipase

LARGE INTESTINE
1. The cecum is a sac at the
junction of the small and large
intestines. Attached to the cecum
is a tube called the appendix.
2. The colon consists of
ascending, transverse,
descending and sigmoid
portions.
3. The large intestine contains
mucus-producing crypts, which
contain goblet cells.
4. The rectum is a straight tube that
ends at the anal canal.
5. The anal canal is surrounded by an
internal anal sphincter (smooth
muscle) and an external anal
sphincter (skeletal muscle).

Function of Large Intestine

1. Feces production and water absorption.
2. Mass movements occur 3 or 4 times a day.
3. Defecation is the elimination of feces. Reflex activity moves feces through the internal
anal sphincter. Voluntary activity regulates movement through the external anal
sphincter.
Stomach Ulcer
• Usually caused by Helicobacter pylori
bacteria or NSAIDs.
• These break down the stomach’s defense
against the acid it produces to digest food.
• Stomach lining then becomes damaged
causing an ulcer to form.

Appendicitis
▪ An inflammation of the appendix that
usually occurs because of an obstruction.
▪ Secretions from the appendix can't pass through, therefore
it accumulates causing enlargement and pain.
▪ If the appendix bursts, the infection can spread causing
peritonitis and spread throughout the peritoneal cavity.
▪ Common treatment is removal of the appendix via surgery.
Gall Stones
▪ An accumulation of hardened cholesterol
and/or calcium deposits in the gallbladder
▪ Can either be “passed” (OUCH!!) or
surgically removed

Heart Burn
ACID from the stomach backs up into the
esophagus.
References/Additional Resources/Readings

Marieb, E. N. and Hoen, K. (2007). Human anatomy and physiology. 7th Edition. Pearson
Benjamin Cummings

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Functions-of-the-Digestive-System_21931/
https://www.slideshare.net/raileeanne/biological-science-boa-2293137
https://greenbrierepiscopal.org/what-is-the-function-of-the-greater-omentum