Geological time

Geological time:
The history of earth can be divided into different time scales.

 Eon – longest time unit, four in earth’s history

 Era – second longest time unit, eons are divided into eras
 Period – third longest time unit, eras are divided into periods

Eons:

Earth’s history is divided into four eons:

 Hadean (pre-Archean) is the first eon and lasted about 500 million years
 Archean is the second eon and lasted for about 1500 million years, life most likely appeared
early in this eon
 Proterozoic is the third eon and lasted almost 2000 million years
 Phanerozoic is the current eon and it started 542 million years ago
The three first eons are often referred to as pre-Cambrian

Era:
Each eon is divided into eras

The current eon, Phanerozoic, is divided into three eras

 Paleozoic (542-251 million years ago) started and ended with the supercontinents
Gondwana and Pangea
  Mesozoic (251-65.5 million years ago) often referred to as the Age of Reptiles
 Cenozoic (65.5 million years ago – today) is often referred to as the Age of Mammals

Periods:

Geologists and biologist divide periods into epochs, but we will settle with periods.

Cambrian:
 Duration 542-488 million years ago
 Sudden increase of life, Cambrian explosion, where fossils have been found in the Burgess Shale
 Swedish islands Öland and Gotland was formed as well as the mountains in Västergötland like
Billingen, Mösseberg, Kinnekulle and Ålleberg
 No life on land but it is likely that life may have existed on beaches and tidal zones
 Temperature little higher than today (about 7 degrees higher in average)

Ordovician:
 Duration 488-444 million years ago
 Algae abundant in the oceans
 Plants started to colonize land
 Climate warmer than today, temperature in the oceans much higher than today
 Nautiloids were a common large predator in the oceans
 The first fishes with jaws appeared late in the period
 Ended with a huge mass extinction called Ordovician-Silurian extinction events
o Second largest mass extinction in Earth’s history
o Nearly 85 % of all marine species is thought to have been extinct
o Cooler climate and volcanism is thought to be among the reasons
Silurian:
 Duration 444-416 million years ago
 Arthropods (insects, crustaceans, spiders and more) features on land
 Vascular plants grew besides lakes, rivers and streams
 Stable warm climate

Devonian:
 416-359 million years ago
 The golden age of fish, both cartilaginous (sharks and similar) and bony fish become diverse
 Climate was warm, average 6 ⁰ C warmer than today
 First tetrapod and insects appear
 Plants become more abundant -> less carbon dioxide in atmosphere (photosynthesis)

Carboniferous:
 Sometimes divided into Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
 Duration 359-299 million years ago
 Extensive forests of vascular plants (mainly ferns)
 First seed plants
 Golden age of Amphibians
 First reptiles appear
 The average temperature was similar to modern day, oxygen level peaked at 35% (today
21%)
 Carbon in Coal is often remains from plants that lived during Carboniferous

Permian:
 Duration 299-251 million years ago
 Average temperature 2⁰ C warmer than modern day
 All landmass on earth was collected in a supercontinent called Pangaea
 Evolution of reptiles
 Origin of most modern-day insect orders
 Ended with Permian – Triassic extinction event 

(Extinction of most land and marine animals).

Permian – Triassic extinction event

 Occurred circa 252 million years ago

 96 % of all marine species and 70 % of terrestrial species were extinct, biggest mass
extinction in Earth’s history

 Causes for the mass extinction

 o Volcanic activity, among a super volcano in modern day Siberia which lead to a
temperature increase by 4-5 degrees Celsius
o Climate change when Pangaea started to split up
o Causes above probably led to changed oxygen level in the oceans and maybe released
methane from the ocean floor that can have increased the temperature with a further
4-5 degrees
Triassic:
 Duration 251-200 million years ago

 Temperature higher than modern day, about 3 degrees

 Cone-bearing plants (conifers) dominate the landscape

 Evolution of dinosaurs

 First mammals appear

Jurassic:
 200-145 million years ago

 Cone-bearing plants still dominate the landscape

 Average temperature 3 degrees higher than now

 Dinosaurs abundant and diverse

 Pangaea broke up into a northern and southern supercontinent

 A primitive bird-like dinosaur, Archaeopteryx, appeared late in Jurassic

Cretaceous:
 Duration 145-65.5 million years ago

 Average temperature 4 degrees higher than today

 Flowering plants appear

 Conifers still dominant

 Mammals still small and reptiles dominated in most faunas

 Ended with a mass extinction event

Cretaceous – Paleogene mass extinction:
 66 million years ago
  Around 75 % of all species were extinct

 Main cause was likely that a comet or asteroid (10-15 km in diameter, roughly the size of
Mars’ moon Phobos) hit earth in the Gulf of Mexico (Chicxulub crater)

 American scientist found that iridium concentration was up to 200 times more common in
layers dated to the mass extinction and draw the conclusion that it must have been in an
impact on Earth. Iridium is rare on Earth but abundant in asteroids and comets therefore
high levels of iridium indicates that there have been an impact. This theory is called the
Alvarez hypothesis after the father and son who discovered the high levels of iridium in
1980

 The Chicxulub crater was discovered in 1990 and could be dated to the C-Pg mass
extinction

 The impact immediately led to a IR-wave that killed everything in its way and caused huge
fires

 A huge dust cloud probably covered the planet for more than a year and might have
lowered the temperature up to 7 degrees

Paleogene (tertiary):
 Duration 65.5-23 million years ago

 Average temperature about 4 degrees warmer than modern day

 Flowering plants dominate the landscape 

 Major radiation of mammals, birds, and pollinating insects

 Origin of many primate groups including apes

Neogene (Quaternary) :
 Duration 23 million years ago – today

 Continued evolution of mammals and flowering plants

 Apelike ancestors appear early and humans appear late

 Ice ages that occur in cycles, caused by the land bridge between North and South America 

 Polar caps

 Continents in modern day positions

 Evidence for evolution

Naturalist Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, on February 12, 1809. In 1831, he embarked
on a five-year survey voyage around the world on the HMS Beagle. His studies of specimens around the
globe led him to formulate his theory of evolution and his views on the process of natural selection. In
1859, he published The Origin of Species. He died on April 19, 1882, in London.

Natural selection
Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change.

 Evolution has no purpose.

 The organism or group of organisms cannot choose what genes they want to spread.
 Variation within the population and random mutations. 
 It is about the ”survival of the fittest”, the individual that has the best chances to produce a living
offspring in the current environment, will spread its genes. 
 In some religions there are still widespread disbelief in evolution, it is therefore important to
show that there is strong evidence for the evolution theory.

Evolution definition:
 The cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population. 

o Cumulative change – small changes upon small changes over many generations.

o Heritable characteristics – gene-controlled factors

o Population – not an individual

Evidence for fossils:

The fossil record provides evidence for evolution.

 Research in fossils – paleontology.

 The sequence in which fossils appear matches the sequence in which they would be expected to
evolve.

o Bacteria and simple algae appearing first

o Then fungi and worms etc.

 The sequence also fits in with the ecology of the groups, with plant fossils appearing before
animal. Plants on land before animal on land etc. 
 Many sequences of fossils are known, which link together existing organisms with their ancestors. 
  Do the data-based question on page 243.

Evidence for selective breeding:

Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution.

 Humans have deliberately bred and used particular animal species for thousands of years. 
 Humans have repeatedly selected for special features that have suited the humans uses. This
process is called artificial selection. 
 Do the data-based question on page 244.

Evidence from homologous structures:

Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there
are differences in function.

 Homologous structures - Structures that may look superficially different and perform a different
function, but which have a ”unity of type”.
 Example the forelimb (arm) of a human, mole, horse and a bat. They include the same bones, in
the same relative positions, even if they on the surface look very different. 
 The evolutionary explanation is that they have had the same origin, from an ancestor that had a
pentadactyl or five-digit limb, and that they have become different because they perform
different functions. 

This is called adaptive radiation.  

Homologous structures:

Analogous structures:
 Structures that look similar but with a closer look they are very different.
 They have different origins and have become similar because they perform the  same
function.
 Example: The wings of butterflies and birds.
This is called convergent evolution.

Rudimentary organs – vestigial organs:

Reduced structures that serve no function and are being gradually lost – for example the appendix and
coccyx (tailbone) in humans.

Speciation:
5.1.U5 Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution.

 A population is - a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same
time.
 If two populations of a species become separated so that they do not interbreed and natural
selection then acts differently on the two populations, they will evolve in different ways.
 The characteristics of the two populations will gradually diverge. 
 This is called speciation – they have evolved to two different species. 
 Often happens on islands – this explains the large number of endemic species on islands. 
 The distinction between species and varieties is vague.

Evidence for evolution:

The continuous range in variation between populations does not match either the belief that species
were created as distinct types of organism and therefore should be constant across their geographic
range or that species are unchanging. Instead, it provides evidence for the evolution of species and the
origin of new species by evolution.

Charles Darwin:

 British scientist who proposed natural selection and therefore is considered the father of the
theory.
 Born in 1809 and died 1882.
 Went on five-year journey around the world on ship called HMS Beagle and studied organisms
on different continents.
 Published his most famous work, “The origin of species” in 1859.

Ideas from the Darwin’s time:

Prevalent ideas:

 Species are fixed and do not change.

 Earth is 6000 years old.

New ideas:

 Fossils indicate that earth is very old.

 Lyell has proposed that landforms change constantly.
  Lamarck proposed that organisms changed, and these changes were passed to progeny.

Voyage of HMS Beagle:

 The journey took almost five years.

 Darwin investigated geology, studied fossils, and living organisms mainly in South America.
 Without his journey, it is unlikely that Darwin had proposed his theory.

Early ideas from Darwin:

 Earth is old and continually changes.

 Earth fossils of marine found in mountains.
 He concluded that living things also change, to evolve over generations.
 He also stated that living species descended from earlier life- time descent with modification.

Natural selection:

Darwin observed that:

 Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support.

 Organisms vary in many characteristics.
 These variations can be inherited.

Galapagos finches:

 Darwin studied finches on the islands of Galapagos and believed they had a common ancestor on
mainland.

Theory of Evolution by natural selection:

 In each generation of a species, individuals have slight differences.

 Sometimes these variations make an individual more successful in its environment (more food,
live longer, reproduce more, attract better mates.)
 Then the individual mat reproduce and pass this variation on to its offspring.
 Variations in individuals are controlled by genes.
 Individuals have no control over what variations they will have.
 Useful variations are not always passed on.
 Variations that are not useful may also be passed on.

Evidence for evolution:

 Fossils
 Comparative anatomy
 Comparative embryology
 Vestigial structures
 Molecular/biochemical Evidence
 Breeding
Fossils:

What does the Fossil record tell us about organisms?

 Looks (size, shape, etc.)

 Where, when, and how they lived.
 What other organisms they lived with.

Many fossils link early extinct species with species living today

 Hind leg bones of fossil whales.

 Evolution of horses.

Comparable structures (homologous structures)

 Organisms that are related in the Tree of Life often have striking anatomic resemblance
 Ex: forelimbs in six vertebrates (five mammals)

What is the theory of evolution?

What do you understand by the term theory in the scientific context?

- A well substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts
repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment

What is evolution?

- The accumulation of change in heritable characteristics of a population over a number of generations

Mutation:

- The change in the base sequence of a gene resulting in a change in the physical characteristics of an
organism

Meiosis:

- Independent Assortment – homologous split during meiosis is randomly generating unique

combinations of chromosomes
Crossing over – non sister chromatids of homologous pairs swap equivalent portions of DNA
generating new genetic combinations within a chromosome.

Random fertilization of gametes from two individuals:

- Random fertilization means that the collection of genes within one gamete have the same chance of
being fertilized as any other gamete. Within one mating pair, enormous variation is possible.

Gene flow amongst populations:

- Also called migration — is any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic material they carry, from
one population to another.

Summary of evolution by natural selection:

1. Populations produce more offspring than the environment can support. The more offspring
there is the more population can survive.
2. There is genetic variation in a population. Genetic variation in a group of organisms enables
some organisms to survive better than others in the environment in which they live. Organisms
of even a small population can differ strikingly in terms of how well suited they are for life in a
certain environment.
3. There is a “selective pressure” that causes a struggle for existence.  Examples:  

o limited food, water, territory, mates.

o change in environment
o predators

4. Differential survival and reproduction:  The individuals with the most favorable variation will be
most likely to survive and reproduce to pass on their genes. (Adaptation, it is not the animals
who adapt to the environment, it is the selective pressure that does it)
5. Over generations, favorable variations increase:  Each new generation will contain more
offspring from individuals with the favorable variation than those with unfavorable ones,
changing the population over time. (Adaptation)

What is a hominid?

 Any human-like species, including us (closer relative to humans than chimpanzees)

 Bipedal (walks on two legs)
 Intelligent (large brain, uses tools)
 Two less important derived human characters are reduced jaw and shortened digestive tract

Hominids aren’t the same as modern apes:

 Modern apes like chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans are not bipedal.

 Modern apes do not have a large brain case compared to ours.
 Modern apes do not make tools.
 However, chimpanzees are our closest relative - our DNA is 98% similar to theirs!

Molecular differences show that humans diverged from chimpanzees 5-6 million years ago

- The genetic difference between humans and chimpanzees is 10 times bigger than between two non-
related humans but 10 times smaller than the difference between a mouse and a rat.
Anthropologists compare the skulls, teeth, bones, and tools. Together they begin to show our
family tree - how we evolved to who we are today. Notice that most species have gone extinct -
there are a lot of “dead ends”.
We are still not exactly sure when the first bipedal hominids evolved, but an amazing discovery
in 1974 proved that hominids were bipedal a lot earlier than previously believed. Her name was
Lucy.
 Discovered in Ethiopia in 1974 (Dr. Donald Johansson)
 Dated at 3.2 million years old!
 40% of her skeleton was found.
 Only 1.22 m tall.
 Bipedal for certain.  She walked upright.

Her scientific name is Australopithecus afarensis, a distant ancestor to us, Homo sapiens.

An even more impressive fossil was found in 1978, but there were no bones to it at all. This
discovery proved that there were bipedal hominids even earlier than Lucy.

The Laetoli footprints:

 3.6 million years old.

 Even older than Lucy.
 Clearly bipedal.
 Also showed that these early hominids walked together.
 (Dr. Mary Leakey – discovered.)

It is important to remember that there were several species in the genus Homo that came
before Homo sapiens.
 Homo habilis is the earliest fossil discovered so far.     (2.3 million years old)
 It means “handy man”.
Homo habilis used very simple tools.

It is not just fossil bones and footprints that can tell us about our evolutionary history – scientists also
look for evidence of the things our ancestors used and ate in order to understand how we evolved. 
Homo erectus was a serious toolmaker and a fine hunter.  Evidence also indicates that they were the first
to use fire.

Fossils of several other species in the genus Homo have also been found.
 Homo ergaster.
  Homo heidelbergensis.
 The most famous is Homo neanderthalensis 
(Neanderthal Man).
 Neanderthal Man lived in Europe.
 They too went extinct.
 Probably lived side-by-side with Homo sapiens.
 Non-sub-Saharan humans have DNA of Neanderthal origin (1.5 -2.1 %)