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QUESTION 1

Presentation Notes/Script
Slide 1 (The dgestive tract)
The digestive tract is made up of a series of structures and organs which food and liquid travel through to be
absorbed and distributed for use around the body. Starting at the lips, the digestive tract consists of the oral
cavity, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine, and the anus.

Food is prepared for its journey through the digestive tract by a mechanical process called mastication or
chewing, taking place in the mouth. Inside the oral cavity, the canines and premolars cut and tear up the food.
The molars at the back then crush and grind up the food. The tongue, in conjunction with the cheeks, guide
the food around the vestibule between upper and lower teeth, using salvia to mould the food into a ball shape,
called a bolus.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems supply a constant flow of saliva to the mouth, even when
food is not present. Enzymes called lysozyme and amylase are found within the secretions of the membranes
which line the oral cavity and salivary glands. These help to soften the food so the digestion process can begin
after swallowing. Amylase uses a process called enzymatic hydrolysis which dissolves food and lysozyme can
dissolve certain bacteria. Rogers, (2011).

Once swallowed, the bolus is forced into and down the pharynx by a series of peristaltic contractions. These
transport the bolus through the oesophagus to where it enters the stomach through the lower oesophageal
sphincter.
Slide 2 (Organs in digestion and their functions)
Organs in the digestive system includes the organs present in the digestive tract and other supporting organs like
the liver, gall bladder and the pancreas. They all have specified functions which all work together to ensure
proper food digestion. Example of the supporting organs and its function is the liver which help in the
emulsification of fat alongside the bile from the gall bladder. The pancreas also secretes certain hormones that
help in the regulation of the body nutrients.
However, there are organs of the digestive system and they include the stomach. Inside the hollow muscular
organ of the stomach, the bolus is churned and becomes a semiliquid mass known as chyme. The chyme is
mixed with highly acidic, enzyme rich gastric juices and further digested so the particles become more soluble
and can move into the small intestine. The gastric juices contain hydrochloric acid; to aid digestion and
destroy bacteria, water, mineral salts, enzymes and intrinsic factor; to allow absorption of vitamin B. Bile, in
particular, is used to neutralise the acid in the stomach. The chyme is then passed through to the small
intestine gradually as parts become ready for further digestion.

The lower digestive tract houses the small intestine and the large intestine, or colon. Inside the first section of
the small intestine, the duodenum, the chyme stimulates the pancreas to release a fluid mixture of pancreatic
juice and bile. The bile is used to breakdown fat globules, providing a larger surface area for the enzyme’s
pancreatic lipase to digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol. This is called emulsification. Sucrase, lactase and
maltase are secreted through the lining of the small intestine and the chyme is continually moved through the
jejunum and ileum, reduced in size and composition until it can be absorbed by the intestinal wall for
transportation through the bloodstream. Segmenting contractions of the smooth muscle intestine wall occur in
an irregular manner to move the contents through the digestive tract. The walls of the small intestine are
covered with tiny mucosa villi which increase the surface area allowing for better absorption of vital nutrients.
Food material that cannot be absorbed is passed into the large intestine where bacteria break it down and other
waste products are picked up. The primary functions of the large intestine are to absorb water and store faecal
matter. Once all of the nutrients and most of the water have been absorbed from the chyme, the non-digestible
waste material is compacted and pushed through to the end of the large intestine to the sigmoid colon, or
rectum, where it is stored as faecal matter for excretion from the body via the anal canal opening. Rogers,
(2011).

Slide 3 (mechanical and chemical digestion)

Mechanical digestion, or catabolism, is the physical breakdown of large food structures into smaller food
structures. Mostly, this takes place in the mouth and the process is referred to as chewing or mastication and
this happens before the bolus travels through the digestive system and the chemical digestion process takes
place. Also, in the stomach and the intestine, mechanical digestion still take place through the mixing and
churning of the food by the muscular contraction of the stomach and intestinal wall.
Chemical digestion is the process of digestion where large molecules are broken into smaller molecules using
the enzymes, carbohydrase, protease and lipase.
For example;
1. Amylase is a carbohydrase which is produced in the mouth and pancreas then secreted into the
alimentary canal. The purpose of amylase is to digest starch to maltose. Maltose is then digested by
maltase into glucose on the lining of the small intestine.
2. Proteases, such as pepsin and trypsin, break down proteins into amino acids. Pepsin is produced when
protein is digested in the stomach and trypsin is produced in the pancreas to be secreted into the
duodenum with lipase enzymes.
3. Lipase enzymes digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Both mechanical and chemical digestive processes exist simultaneously to breakdown food molecules and
increase the surface area to allow nutrients to be absorbed effectively into the body system.

Slide 4 (Optimal conditions for digestive enzymes)

Enzymes are released into multiple organs along the alimentary canal.
 For example, salivary amylase is secreted from the salivary glands and pepsin and gastric lipase are
secreted from the gastric glands.
Enzymes catalyze reactions inside cells so their life supporting processes can be carried out efficiently. For
the digestive system these are to breakdown macronutrient food molecules and speed up the digestive
process.
 The internal environment of the digestive system must have a suitable pH level for this catalytic
reaction to happen. The optimal temperature for enzymes found in humans is body temperature,
around 37°C.
 The optimal pH conditions for each enzyme are shown in this table. The enzymes that operate best in
acidic conditions, , and have an optimum pH of about 2, are those which enter the stomach, for
example, gastric lipase and pepsin. Once enzyme rich chyme leaves the stomach it enters the
duodenum, and the acidic content is neutralized by alkali bile. Then we see enzymes such as trypsin
and pancreatic amylase and lipase secreted from the pancreas into the duodenum. These enzymes
operate best in alkaline conditions which ranges between 7.5-8.5.

Each enzyme molecule has an active site which allows it to bond with specific substrates. The active site has
a geometrical shape and particular chemical signals which will only allow the specific substrate to bond with
its complementary shape. When the substrate attaches to the enzyme’s active site, an enzyme-substrate
complex is formed. Inside the complex a reaction takes place to create a product, depending on which
enzymes and substrates bond together. Once the end product is released, it can be transported and stored,
leaving the active site clear for the process to start over again.
Slide 5 (Food groups and their nutrients; macro and micro nutrients)
In 2016, the Department of Health released the latest copy of the Eatwell Guide to show a healthy balanced
diet and lifestyle for the average adult in the UK. It is suggested that the ideal balanced diet to provide good
health and prevent disease would contain both macronutrients; carbohydrates, protein and fat, and
micronutrients; vitamins and minerals. The classes of food required for the full body functioning includes
water, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, proteins, fat and oils. In their macro and micro nutrient levels,
when taken proportionately with water and in the right quantity and quality they ensure a healthy body.
 The base of the food pyramid shows that water is very important in every food decision because it aids
digestion and the maintenance of the body homeostasis.
 The second group are the foods that should dominate our meals, which are all sources of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are essential macronutrients which must be ingested. Macronutrients found in starchy
foods, such as these, increase energy and strength for physical exercise, produce heat within the body,
build muscle and help improve concentration and stamina. Unrefined complex carbohydrate variations
such as wholemeal bread and whole grain rice are recommended for maximum nutrient benefit.
 The next food group shown is Group 3; fruit and vegetables. Fruit and vegetables are also
carbohydrates but contain a number of nutrients, antioxidants, fibre and have a high-water content. As
the main source of micronutrients, fruit and vegetables should make up the next biggest portion of our
meals. Micronutrients are essential in a balanced diet, even though they do not provide energy or
calorific value, as they are used in the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
 Towards the top of the pyramid are Group 1; meat, fish and alternatives, and Group 4; dairy and
alternatives. These are sources of protein. Most of the products in Group 1 are animal products, but
there are some plant-based protein sources such as beans and pulses, which also provide dietary fibre.
Protein is a macronutrient which contains amino acids and is essential for metabolism and muscle
development. There are 20 amino acids required by the body, 9 of which must be ingested as food as
the human body cannot manufacture them.
  Foods in Group 4 provide a source of calcium, protein, vitamins and minerals and, therefore, should be
consumed daily. Calcium is a micronutrient mineral, along with chloride, magnesium, sodium, Sulphur,
potassium and phosphorus.
 At the top of the pyramid, is Group 5; oils and spreads, which should take up only a small portion of
our daily intake of calories as they are often high in saturated fat. However, fats are essential to a
balanced diet. The best ingredients to consume would be avocados, nuts and/or olive oil, which contain
unsaturated fats.

References
Rogers, K., (2011). The Digestive System. [ebook] Britannica Digital Learning. Available at:
https://www.perlego.com/book/1639264/the-digestive-system-pdf (Accessed on 03/02/2021)

fig 1: the digestive tract available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 2: organs of digestion and their functions available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 3: mechanical digestion available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 4: chemical digestion available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 5: a digestive enzyme chart available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 6: balanced diet food group available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022