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QUESTION 1

Presentation Notes/Script
Slide 1 (The dgestive tract)
The digestive tract is made up of a series of structures and organs which food and liquid travel
through to be absorbed and distributed for use around the body. Starting at the lips, the digestive
tract consists of the oral cavity, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the
large intestine, and the anus.

Food is prepared for its journey through the digestive tract by a mechanical process called
mastication or chewing, taking place in the mouth. Inside the oral cavity, the canines and premolars
cut and tear up the food. The molars at the back then crush and grind up the food. The tongue, in
conjunction with the cheeks, guide the food around the vestibule between upper and lower teeth,
using salvia to mould the food into a ball shape, called a bolus.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems supply a constant flow of saliva to the mouth,
even when food is not present. Enzymes called lysozyme and amylase are found within the
secretions of the membranes which line the oral cavity and salivary glands. These help to soften the
food so the digestion process can begin after swallowing. Amylase uses a process called enzymatic
hydrolysis which dissolves food and lysozyme can dissolve certain bacteria. Rogers, (2011).

Once swallowed, the bolus is forced into and down the pharynx by a series of peristaltic contractions.
These transport the bolus through the oesophagus to where it enters the stomach through the lower
oesophageal sphincter.
Slide 2 (Organs in digestion and their functions)
Inside the hollow muscular organ of the stomach, the bolus is churned and becomes a semiliquid
mass known as chyme. The chyme is mixed with highly acidic, enzyme rich gastric juices and further
digested so the particles become more soluble and can move into the small intestine. The gastric
juices contain hydrochloric acid; to aid digestion and destroy bacteria, water, mineral salts, enzymes
and intrinsic factor; to allow absorption of vitamin B. Bile, in particular, is used to neutralise the acid
in the stomach. The chyme is then passed through to the small intestine gradually as parts become
ready for further digestion.

The lower digestive tract houses the small intestine and the large intestine, or colon. Inside the first
section of the small intestine, the duodenum, the chyme stimulates the pancreas to release a fluid
mixture of pancreatic juice and bile. The bile is used to breakdown fat globules, providing a larger
surface area for the enzyme’s pancreatic lipase to digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol. This is
called emulsification. Sucrase, lactase and maltase are secreted through the lining of the small
intestine and the chyme is continually moved through the jejunum and ileum, reduced in size and
composition until it can be absorbed by the intestinal wall for transportation through the
bloodstream. Segmenting contractions of the smooth muscle intestine wall occur in an irregular
manner to move the contents through the digestive tract. The walls of the small intestine are covered
with tiny mucosa villi which increase the surface area allowing for better absorption of vital
nutrients. Food material that cannot be absorbed is passed into the large intestine where bacteria
break it down and other waste products are picked up. The primary functions of the large intestine
are to absorb water and store faecal matter. Once all of the nutrients and most of the water have been
absorbed from the chyme, the non-digestible waste material is compacted and pushed through to the
end of the large intestine to the sigmoid colon, or rectum, where it is stored as faecal matter for
excretion from the body via the anal canal opening. Rogers, (2011).

Slide 3 (mechanical and chemical digestion)

Chemical digestion is the process of digestion where large molecules are broken into smaller
molecules using the enzymes, carbohydrase, protease and lipase.
For example;
1. Amylase is a carbohydrase which is produced in the mouth and pancreas then secreted into the
alimentary canal. The purpose of amylase is to digest starch to maltose. Maltose is then
digested by maltase into glucose on the lining of the small intestine.
2. Proteases, such as pepsin and trypsin, break down proteins into amino acids. Pepsin is
produced when protein is digested in the stomach and trypsin is produced in the pancreas to be
secreted into the duodenum with lipase enzymes.
3. Lipase enzymes digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Mechanical digestion, or catabolism, is the physical breakdown of large food structures into smaller
food structures. Mostly, this takes place in the mouth and the process is referred to as chewing or
mastication and this happens before the bolus travels through the digestive system and the chemical
digestion process takes place. Also, in the stomach and the intestine, mechanical digestion still take
place through the mixing and turning of the food by the internal lining of the stomach and intestinal
wall.
Both mechanical and chemical digestive processes exist simultaneously to breakdown food
molecules and increase the surface area to allow nutrients to be absorbed effectively into the body
system.

Slide 4 (Optimal conditions for digestive enzymes)

Enzymes are released into multiple organs along the alimentary canal. For example, salivary
amylase is secreted from the salivary glands and pepsin and gastric lipase are secreted from the
gastric glands. Enzymes catalyse reactions inside cells so their life supporting processes can be
carried out efficiently. For the digestive system these are to breakdown macronutrient food
molecules and speed up the digestive process. The internal environment of the digestive system must
have a suitable pH level for this catalytic reaction to happen. The optimal temperature for enzymes
found in humans is body temperature, around 37°C. The optimal pH conditions for each enzyme are
shown in this table. The enzymes that operate best in acidic conditions are those which enter the
stomach, for example, gastric lipase and pepsin. Once enzyme rich chyme leaves the stomach it
enters the duodenum, and the acidic content is neutralised by alkali bile. Then we see enzymes such
as trypsin and pancreatic amylase and lipase secreted from the pancreas into the duodenum. These
enzymes operate best in alkaline conditions.

Each enzyme molecule has an active site which allows it to bond with specific substrates. The active
site has a geometrical shape and particular chemical signals which will only allow the specific
substrate to bond with its complementary shape. When the substrate attaches to the enzyme’s active
site, an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. Inside the complex a reaction takes place to create a
product, depending on which enzymes and substrates bond together. Once the end product is
released, it can be transported and stored, leaving the active site clear for the process to start over
again.
Slide 5 (Food groups and their nutrients; macro and micro nutrients)
In 2016, the Department of Health released the latest copy of the Eatwell Guide to show a healthy
balanced diet and lifestyle for the average adult in the UK. It is suggested that the ideal balanced diet
to provide good health and prevent disease would contain both macronutrients; carbohydrates, protein
and fat, and micronutrients; vitamins and minerals.
The base of the food pyramid shows that water is very important in every food decision and the
second group are the foods that should dominate our meals, which are all sources of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are essential macronutrients which must be ingested. Macronutrients found in starchy
foods, such as these, increase energy and strength for physical exercise, produce heat within the body,
build muscle and help improve concentration and stamina. Unrefined complex carbohydrate variations
such as wholemeal bread and whole grain rice are recommended for maximum nutrient benefit.

The next food group shown is Group 3; fruit and vegetables. Fruit and vegetables are also
carbohydrates but contain a number of nutrients, antioxidants, fibre and have a high-water content.
As the main source of micronutrients, fruit and vegetables should make up the next biggest portion of
our meals. Micronutrients are essential in a balanced diet, even though they do not provide energy or
calorific value, as they are used in the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.

Towards the top of the pyramid are Group 1; meat, fish and alternatives, and Group 4; dairy and
alternatives. These are sources of protein. Most of the products in Group 1 are animal products, but
there are some plant-based protein sources such as beans and pulses, which also provide dietary fibre.
Protein is a macronutrient which contains amino acids and is essential for metabolism and muscle
development. There are 20 amino acids required by the body, 9 of which must be ingested as food as
the human body cannot manufacture them. Foods in Group 4 provide a source of calcium, protein,
vitamins and minerals and, therefore, should be consumed daily. Calcium is a micronutrient mineral,
along with chloride, magnesium, sodium, sulphur, potassium and phosphorus.

At the top of the pyramid, is Group 5; oils and spreads, which should take up only a small portion of
our daily intake of calories as they are often high in saturated fat. However, fats are essential to a
balanced diet. The best ingredients to consume would be avocados, nuts and/or olive oil, which
contain unsaturated fats.

References
Rogers, K., (2011). The Digestive System. [ebook] Britannica Digital Learning. Available at:
https://www.perlego.com/book/1639264/the-digestive-system-pdf (Accessed on 03/02/2021)

fig 1: the digestive tract available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 2: organs of digestion and their functions available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on

20/10/2022

fig 3: mechanical digestion available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 4: chemical digestion available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 5: a digestive enzyme chart available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022

fig 6: balanced diet food group available at www.wikipedia.com. Accessed on 20/10/2022