6.

1 – Digestion

6.1.1 - Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential

When we eat food, the carbohydrates and other molecules are very large and insoluble.
They would not be able to pass through the cell membranes to get into the bloodstream.
Digestion breaks them down into smaller molecules that are soluble and can be taken up
into the bloodstream. These smaller molecules can then be used to build up the
macromolecules necessary for the function of our bodies. For example, large polypeptides
are broken up into their amino acids, which are then used to build up new proteins.

6.1.2 - Explain the need for enzymes in digestion

An enzyme is a biological catalyst which lowers the activation energy in order to speed up a
reaction. Each enzyme is specific to a particular substrate molecule, so a number of different
digestive enzymes are secreted to be able to break down all the different food types. They
are secreted for the hydrolysis of large polymers. These enzymes reach optimum
functioning at body temperature. The enzymes lower the activation energy to allow the
reaction to proceed more readily, whilst still at body temperature.

Without enzymes, we would not be able to digest our food because the temperatures
required to break the bonds between the large molecules would be far too high for living
organisms. However, without enzymes, the reactions involved in digestion would take place
very slowly at body temperature, and we would not be able to survive. With them, the rate
of reaction is significantly increased to allow for respiration at the necessary rate.

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6.1.3 - State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH condition for one amylase,
on protease and one lipase

Salivary Amylase
This enzyme comes from the salivary glands, found in the mouth, and breaks down
polysaccharides like amylose, or starch. This is then broken down into disaccharides like
maltose and glucose. The optimum pH of this enzyme is roughly neutral: 6.5-7.5.

Pancreatic Lipase
This is sourced from the pancreas and breaks down fats and oils, or triglycerides. The result
is fatty acids and glycerol. The triglycerides form tiny droplets called emulsified lipids. Bile
salts must be present for the lipids to be emulsified. This process increases the surface area
and exposes the head of the glycerol molecule to allow the enzymes to act on it. The
optimum pH of lipase is 7.0.

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Pepsin
This is a protease found among the gastric juices in the stomach. It works best at pH 2.0. It
breaks down large polypeptide chains into smaller peptides. This is done through the
hydrolysis of the peptide bonds in the chain.

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6.1.4 - Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system

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6.1.5 - Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine

Stomach

The food enters the stomach in the form of a bolus. The opening between the stomach and
the oesophagus is called the cardiac sphincter. In the stomach, the food is churned around.
Gastric juices are secreted into the stomach containing HCl and protease enzymes. The
main enzyme used to break down proteins in the stomach is pepsin. The pH of the stomach
is about 1.5-2.0, which is optimum for protein digestion, as well as killing off many harmful
microorganisms.

The mucus in the stomach is secreted from the goblet cells, which are located along the
lining of the stomach. This protects the lining from being broken down by all the acids,
called autolysis. The end result of the churning is that the food becomes semi-liquid chyme.

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Small Intestine

The opening between the stomach and the small intestine is called the pyloric sphincter. In
the small intestine, all the soluble products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream
for use around the body. The first section is the duodenum where the chyme is mixed with
bile to lower the pH, then with pancreatic juices containing enzymes for the digestion of
lipids, carbohydrates and proteins. This further breaks them down to the smaller
monosaccharides, amino acids, small peptides, fatty acids and glycerol. Movement through
the small intestine is maintained by peristalsis.

The pancreas secretes both enzymes and a buffer solution made up of a bicarbonate. The
buffer helps to maintain a higher pH, resisting the addition of the acidic chyme.

An important feature of the small intestine is that its lining is covered

with villi, which in turn are covered in microvilli. These increase the
surface area to maximise absorption. The villi absorb nutrients via
active transport to the blood.

Bile has an additional function, which is to emulsify the lipids in the

duodenum. This breaks them apart, speeding up enzyme action later.

The small intestine is also coated in mucus along the lining to

protect the epithelial cells, which provide the ATP for active
transport.

The nutrients that are absorbed into the blood then travel to
all the different parts of the body. They are taken up into the
cells through assimilation.

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Large Intestine

The large intestine has many folds to increase the surface area for absorption. Most of the
products that enter the large intestine are indigestible material such as fibre, dead cells,
mucus and other things like minerals and water.

The appendix is located near the opening of the large intestine, however in humans it has
no function.

In the first section, the colon, water and minerals are absorbed to leave more solid faeces.
These are stored in the rectum until they are excreted through the anus, controlled by
sphincter muscles. The movement of food is maintained by peristalsis.

6.1.6 - Distinguish between absorption and assimilation

Absorption
Soluble products of digestion are absorbed into the blood circulation system, or the
lymphatic system if they are fats droplets.

Assimilation
Products of digestion are absorbed into the cells from the blood to be stored or used within
the tissues.

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6.1.7 - Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption of
transport of the products of digestion

Villi play an important role in absorption of nutrients in the small

intestine because their structure increases the surface area to maximise
the process. In fact, the surface area is increased tenfold due to their
presence.

Each villus is covered with microvilli to further increase their surface

area. Each villus has capillaries and lacteals inside it, which transport the
nutrients to the rest of the body. The epithelial cells provide energy for
active transport of nutrients.

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