STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS: DIEGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE DIFFERENT ORGANS OF DIGESTION

Digestion is the process in which food is broken down into smaller molecules that the body can
use to nourish the cells and to provide energy. As food enters the body through the mouth, food
undergoes two phases of digestion – the mechanical and chemical phases.

During the mechanical phase of digestion, food is broken down into small pieces by the process
of chewing or mastication. Food is lubricated and softened by the digestive juices such as the
saliva in the mouth, and the gastric juice in the stomach.

During the chemical phase of digestion, food is acted upon by chemical substances called
enzymes that are secreted together with the digestive juices. These enzymes act on food and
change them into their simplest equivalents which the body cells can utilize.

The organs of digestion are divided into two main parts:

 Alimentary Tract
 Accessory Organs

The organs of the Alimentary Tract:

 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small Intestine
 Large Intestine
 Rectum
 Anus

The organs of the Accessory Organs:

 Salivary Glands
 Liver
 Gallbladder
 Pancreas

The Mouth

Digestion begins in the mouth or oral cavity.

The mouth contains the following structures and their corresponding functions:
  The teeth break down food into small pieces.
 The tongue is a muscular organ that mixes the food with the saliva and at the same time
aids in swallowing. The tongue contains taste buds that enable us to taste food.
 Ducts of salivary glands. The salivary glands secrete saliva that lubricates food. The
saliva likewise contains the enzymes that help in the chemical digestion of carbohydrates.
 The palate forms the roof of the mouth. The anterior portion is the hard palate and the
posterior portion is the soft palate.

In the mouth, food is mechanically and chemically digested. Food that enters the mouth is
lubricated and chewed until it forms into a ball-shaped mass called bolus. Swallowing pushes the
bolus into the pharynx or throat.

The Pharynx

The pharynx or throat is located at the back of the mouth. It is about 5 to 6 inches long. The
pharynx is the common passageway for digestion and respiration. However, breathing and
swallowing do not happen at the same time. The opening that leads to the trachea is always open.
A sphincter muscle covers the esophagus, so air freely enters the trachea.

The Esophagus

The esophagus is a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the
stomach. During the act of swallowing, the bolus is transported by the esophagus into the
stomach through the esophagus via wave-like contraction called peristalsis. Peristalsis may be
associated to an ocean wave moving through the muscles of the internal organs.

The Stomach

The stomach is the expanded organ located between the esophagus and small intestine. It is a
muscular, elastic, and pear-shaped organ that is about 30.5cm wide. The stomach’s capacity is
about 0.94 liters in an adult.

The stomach performs three functions:

 Stores the swallowed food

 Mixes the food with the digestive juice it produces
 Conveys its contents slowly into the small intestine

Investigation of the interior of the stomach reveals the presence of folds called Rugae.
Within the rugae are gastric glands composed of many different kinds of cells: mucuos-
secreting cells that secrete an alkaline mucus which protects the stomach lining from stress and
corroding effects of the acid; the parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid; the chief cells or
the zymogenic cells that secrete the protein-digesting enzymes; and the G cells that secrete the
hormone gastrin. The secretions of all these cells comprise what is known as the gastric juice.
 The contraction or churning of the stomach mixes the food with the gastric juice until the
food is changed into chyme, which is the semi-fluid, partly digested food. As the food is churned
in the stomach, the sphincter muscles on the both sides of the stomach are closed. Occasional
back-flowing of the acidic chyme in the esophagus can cause heart burn.

The Small Intestine

Functionally, the small intestine is considered as the organ of complete digestion and
absorption. This is because it secretes the enzymes that change food materials into their simplest
components.

Structurally, the small intestine is the longest organ of the digestive system. The small
intestine of an adult measures about 6 meters long and approximately 2.5 cm in diameter.

The small intestine is divided into three sections:

 Duodenum (about 25cm long) – the shortest and the most fixed part.
 Jejunum (about 1.4 meters long) – the middle and freely movable portion.
 Ileum (about 3.5 meters long) – the longest and the highly coiled part.

The Large Intestine

The large intestine or colon is the next organ after the small intestine. It is about 1.5
meters long and 5 cm in diameter.

The colon has three functions:

 Temporary stores fecal material

 Absorbs vitamins produced by certain symbiotic bacteria in the colon.
 Reabsorbs water from the undigested residue.

The large intestine is divided into three distinct parts:

 Ascending colon
 Transverse colon
 Descending colon

The proximal part of the ascending colon is the cecum, a blind sac that bears the
vermiform appendix. The distal end of the descending colon is the sigmoid colon, named as
such because of its somewhat S-shape.

The Rectum and Anus

The rectum is located at the distal end of the sigmoid colon. It is about 8 inches long and
basically serves as a warehouse for the undigested residue or feces. At the end part of the rectum
is the anal canal or anus that functions as the exit point for fecal materials.
 The Different Accessory Organs of Digestion

Exocrine Glands – they have ducts and openings that secrete chemical substances into
the organ of digestion which facilitate the digestive process. Pour out secretions that aid in the
chemical of food.

The Salivary Glands

The salivary glands are located in the mouth. The salivary glands secrete saliva, a
chemical substance that is a combination of watery fluid (serous fluid) and mucus. About 1 liter
of saliva is secreted by these glands every day. The mucus part of the saliva lubricates the mouth
and aids in swallowing, while the serous part contains the salivary amylase ptyalin that digests
carbohydrates in the mouth.

There are three types of salivary glands:

 Parotid
 Sublingual
 Submandibular

The Liver and Gallbladder

The liver is the largest organ in the body. It is located at the right side upper abdomen.
The liver performs many vital functions in the body, one of which is the production of bile from
bilirubin, a waste product formed when red blood cells are being destroyed. Bile is temporarily
stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. About 500 to 1,000 mL of bile is stored and
concentrated in the liver daily.

Bile performs two important functions in digestion:

 It emulsifies fats
 Neutralizes the acidity of the partly digested foo (chyme) that comes from the stomach.

The Pancreas

The pancreas is a large, elongated gland located at the back of the stomach. In humans,
the pancreas is a yellowish organ that is about 18 cm long and 4 cm wide. The pancreas
functions as both exocrine and endocrine glands.

The endocrine part consisting of large spherical clusters is known as the Islets of
Langerhans which secretes hormones important in the metabolism of sugar. The exocrine part
consisting of small, berrylike clusters is known as the pancreatic acini which secretes the
digestive enzymes directly into the duodenum.

The acinar cells secrete four enzymes:

  Amylopsin
 Trypsin
 Steapsin
 Nuclease

THE DIFFERERENT ENZYMES AND THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

Enzymes are organic catalysts. They are protein substances that can either initiate
or speed up chemical reactions. The substances that are transformed with the help of
enzymes are called substrates.

The specificity of enzymes was demonstrated by Emil Fischer, a Nobel laureate

in organic chemistry in 1894, in what he called the “lock and key” model.

Factors Affecting Enzymes

According to Fischer, both enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary
geometric shapes that exactly fit each other. Once a substrate has come into contact with the
active site of an enzyme, it is modified by the enzyme to form the end product.

Once the process is completed, the enzyme releases the product and is ready to begin the
process with new substrates. Thus, in any chemical reaction where enzymes are involved,
nothing is wasted.

Enzymes are affected by temperature. Enzymes work well in temperature ranging from
30°C to 40°C. Beyond and below this temperature, enzymes are inactivated. Enzymes are also
affected by the pH of the substrate. pH pertains to the relative acidity of the medium where the
substrate is located. Any change in pH can likewise inactivate enzymes. The enzyme pepsin in
the stomach works well in an acidic medium, while the enzymes in the small intestine are
efficient in an alkaline medium.

Digestive enzymes are classified based on the substrate they work on:

 Proteases and Peptidases – act on protein, breaking them into amino acid units.
 Carbohydrates – act on carbohydrates (starch and sugar), breaking them into
simple sugars (example: Glucose).
 Lipases – break fats or lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Nucleases – break down nucleic acids into nucleotides.

The Digestive System Interacting with Organs System

 The digestive system, with the help of the different organs that compose it, processes
food into products which body cells can utilize. However, the digestive system, just like the other
organ systems that compose the human body, works in conjunction with other systems to ensure
that a stable internal environment, called homeostasis, is maintained. The following discussions
will show how the digestive system interacts with the endocrine, excretory, respiratory, and
circulatory systems to achieve homeostasis.

Absorbs of the Final Products of Digestion

Absorption of the final products of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The inner
linings of the small intestine are composed of finger-like extensions called villi (singular villus).
The villi increase the small intestine’s surface area for absorption.

The circulatory system supplies oxygen to the different organs through the blood,
allowing the cells that compose them to stay alive. At the same time, it also carries away
nutrients and transports them to various cells of the body. By diffusion and passive transport, the
products of digestion are absorbed by the columnar cells at the edge of the villus.

Glucose, fructose, and galactose are absorbed by the capillaries and brought to the liver.
Galactose and fructose are first changed to glucose before they are circulated to the different
cells of the body as energy sources. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver. Amino
acids are also absorbed by the capillaries. They are used in bringing about growth and repair of
damaged tissues, and for other functions that require the amino acids. Excess amino acids are
broken down in the liver and excreted as urea.

Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the lacteal vessels and brought to the
lymphatic circulation. They are likewise used as energy sources and the rest are deposited to
various parts of the body.

The Role of Hormones in the Digestive Process

Various hormones secreted by the endocrine system play vital roles in the digestive
process. Hormones are chemical “messengers” that signal the organs of the alimentary tract and
accessory organs to perform different actions and bring about the entire digestive process. The
hormones may act on an entire organ, part of the organ, or specific tissues and cells.

In the stomach, gastrin is secreted by the G cells of the gastric glands. Gastrin is
secreted upon smelling, seeing, and tasting food. The presence of gastrin stimulates the secretion
of gastric juice by the gastric glands in the stomach.

Secretin is secreted by the S cells lining the small intestine. Its secretion is stimulated as
gastric juice from the stomach reaches the duodenum by peristalsis. Secretin triggers the
secretion of the pancreatic bicarbonate ions and the enzyme pepsin from the gastric juice. The
bicarbonate ions together with the bile of the liver neutralize the acidity of the chyme that
comes from the stomach. The release of secretin decreases gastric secretion in the stomach.
 Cholecystokinin or CCK is secreted by the I cells lining the small intestine. This
hormone stimulates the secretion of the pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. It also
stimulates gallbladder contraction and bile flow. The release of the enzyme trypsin in the
pancreatic juice suppresses the secretion of CCK.

Elimination of Waste Products

As food is broken down into its simplest form, waste products are formed. Wastes exist
in several forms – as solids, liquids, and gases. As the various food groups are broken, a lot of
water is being released by the body cells. The large intestine, which is also an organ of excretion,
eliminates solid waste in the form of feces.

Respiration supplies the different digestive organs with the oxygen they need, and at the
same time, it removes carbon dioxide from them. As oxygen is utilized by the cells comprising
the digestive organs in releasing energy to perform their functions efficiently, carbon dioxide and
water are released as metabolic wastes. Carbon dioxide is expelled out of the body through the
lungs, while the excess water exits the body in the form of urine and sweat.

HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS AND

TECHNOLOGIES THAT PROMOTE THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

Problems Involving the Digestive System

1. Pica

Pica is an eating disorder characterized by persistent desire or appetite for substances

with no unknown nutritive value – soil, clay, paper, chalk, glass, or even feces. Such
behavior is deemed inappropriate.

This disorder is commonly observed in children and women of all ages ad from people
within these subgroups with psychological disorders like schizophrenia and autism. For a
pattern of eating disorder to be diagnosed as Pica, the eating habit should have occurred for at
least one month.

Complications may range from poisoning, due to the effect of the substance ingested, to
life-threatening effects on the organs like digestive organ obstruction, ulcerations, and
perforations that can cause internal hemorrhage.
 There is no specific medical treatment for Pica. A multi-disciplinary approach involving
psychologists, social workers, and physicians is recommended for effective treatment. Some
drugs whose effect is more on the behavioral intervention are recommended.

2. Heartburn and acid reflux or GERD

Heartburn occurs when the stomach acid splashes out of the stomach. A person with
heartburn experiences a burning sensation from the abdominal area rising into the chest
area, with heartbeat going faster than normal. Stress and anxiety can also cause heartburn.

Acid reflux is when the stomach acid reaches the esophagus. Persistent acid
reflux can lead to or gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), which requires medical
attention.

3. Flatulence

Flatulence is due to the excessive amount of gases stored in the digestive tract. A
mixture of gases is formed in the stomach as products of digestion. In some cases, these
gases are not regularly released, thus, flatulence is experienced.

4. Indigestion or dyspepsia

Indigestion is a condition caused by food stagnation. Overeating, eating too fast, and
malfunctioning in the digestive system such as abnormal secretion of digestive juices are
the common causes of indigestion. This results in discomfort characterized by the feeling
of fullness, bloating and pain in the upper abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and the abdominal
distention.

5. Colitis

Colitis pertains to the inflammation of the large intestine or colon. Common

symptoms include bloody mucus in stool resulting to anemia, abdominal cramps, and
weight loss. This condition can lead to ulcers in the colon and rectum.

6. Constipation

Constipation is a condition wherein the fecal material or stool becomes dry,

compact, and difficult to discharge. Constipation happens due to lack of enough water
and fibers in diet. Stress and taking some medicines like antacid and anti-diarrhea pills
are known to be some of the causes of constipation.

Technologies Used to Promote Functioning of the Digestive System

Probiotics
 Bacteria play a crucial role in the digestive system. These bacteria are described as
beneficial or good bacteria because they can promote good health.

Acidophilus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp. are species of bacteria that are found in the
human digestive system. They are beneficial to us because their metabolic activities prevent less
desirable bacteria from inhabiting our digestive system.

 Good bacteria help to break down polysaccharides (cellulose) and other foods that
the human body cannot digest, which become a source of energy.
 Good bacteria act on the undigested residues (feces) and extract from them some
vitamins, which the body itself cannot synthesize and unlock from these residues
essential minerals that the body needs in performing life activities.
 Some good bacteria can synthesize vitamin K, which the body itself cannot
synthesize, and they help extract other essential vitamins and minerals from the
digestive materials that have been indigested.
 Beneficial bacteria help the body re-absorb excess water from the large intestine,
and they break down carcinogenic drugs and chemicals that are incorporated in
the food that we eat.

Bacteria generally find their way into the digestive system when we ingest food. When
they reach the digestive tract, their population increases naturally. However, their population in
our body decreases when we take antibiotics to cure some illnesses. Since antibiotics are not
selective, even the good bacteria die, and it takes time for the body to build up enough supply of
good bacteria. Consequently, there is a tendency that the person will suffer from vitamin and
mineral deficiency. To help the body build up good supply of good bacteria, use of probiotics is
sometimes recommended.

Probiotics are nutritional supplements that contain live bacteria, the most common of
which are the Lactobacillus species. These bacterial species are incorporated in infant’s milk
formula, yogurt, and other food and dairy products. Studies showed that regular consumption of
probiotics improves body resistance against colds and other respiratory illnesses. They also
hasten digestive process and prevent parasitic infections.

Antioxidants are naturally-occurring compounds that have the ability to neutralize

unstable free radicals that can cause cellular damage.

The oxidation of lipids, proteins, and DNA that are found in the body cells releases
products in the form of free radicals. These radicals are unstable substances that can enter into
chemical reactions with other compounds of cells, resulting to various kinds of ailments like
atherosclerosis, lung injury, improper functioning of the nervous system, and other
cardiovascular diseases and even cancer. They include vitamins (C and E), beta-carotene, and
minerals (selenium and zinc).

Vitamins are nutrients that are needed by the body in small quantities to promote growth
and maintenance of health and life processes. They assist the digestive enzymes in executing
their functions well.
There are two groups of vitamins:

 Water-soluble vitamins (B-vitamins and vitamin C)

 Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, and K)

Altogether, these vitamins have been clinically observed, and they are considered antioxidant
fighters.

Beta-carotene is a constituent of green, leafy, and yellow fruits and vegetables. It helps
protect cells from damaging action of free radicals, and it is a precursor in the synthesis of
vitamin A that is essential for good vison.

Minerals are inorganic substances, which just like vitamins, are needed by the body in
minute quantities or as traces. Of the minerals needed by the body, 16 minerals are necessary and
must be supplied by the diet. Minerals are essential nutrients the cells need to optimize energy
production.

Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs) are the healthy or “good” fatty acids, which our body needs to
function properly. Fatty acids are important components of lipids. Our body is capable of
synthesizing some fatty acids except omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Studies showed that
omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids can promote and enhance several biological functions such as
good blood circulation, enhanced immunity, and a balanced secretion of hormones.

THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The process where plants, animals, and human beings produce new organisms or multiply is
called reproduction.

Reproduction that involves both male and female reproductive organ is called sexual
reproduction.

The Male Reproductive System

The main organ of the male reproductive system is the testis (or testicles). The testis are a
pair of spherical glands located in a pouch that hang outside of a male’s body. At puberty, the
testis produce sperm and the male sex hormone called testosterone. Testosterone is responsible
for the development of the secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, muscle development,
and deep voice. These traits usually appear during adolescence.
 There are two testis, which are located in a sac of skin that is outside of the body wall. This
sac, which is called the scrotum, keeps the temperature of the testis slightly lower than that of
the rest of the body; lower temperature is best for the production and storage of sperm.

Each testis consist of small, coiled tube called seminiferous tubules. Immature sperms are
produce in seminiferous tubules. From there, the sperms pass to the epididymis, a storage area in
upper rear part of the testis. They leave the epididymis through the vas deferens, a tube that
leads upward from each testis into the lower part of the abdomen.

The two vas deferens join at the urethra, the passageway for the elimination of the urine.
The urethra is also the passageway through which sperms leave the body. As sperms enter the
urethra, the seminal vesicles, Cowper’s glands, and the prostate gland all secret fluids into the
urethra. The mixture of these fluids and sperm is called semen. The passage of semen through
the urethra occurs by a process called ejaculation.

The male reproductive system includes:

 Testis
 Ducts
 Glands
 Penis

The Female Reproductive System

Common Disorders of the Respiratory System

Some of the common disorders of the reproductive system are sterility, tumors, cancer,
and sexually transmitted disease (STD).

Sterility, tumors, and cancer are caused by exposure to harmful radiation, hazardous
chemicals, pollution, cigarette smoking, and drugs. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as
gonorrhea and syphilis, are contagious. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is
considered a serious case of sexually transmitted disease. People with AIDS experience
weakening of the immune system, which is the body’s defense against disease.

Suggestions that will protect us from being affected by illnesses;

 Eat less fats. Fats are found in red meat, butter, oils, and ice cream.
  Eat more foods in high fiber. Like unpeeled fruits and green vegetables and whole grain
cereals.
 Get more vitamin A and C. Yellow fruits and green vegetables contain this vitamins.
 Eat vegetables in the cabbage family.
 Limit alcohol intake. Drinking beer, wine, and liquor can wear down the body’s defenses.
 Eat less-preserved foods.
 Do not overeat.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

STRUCUTRE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The Human Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the system of air tubes that carry air to
and from the lungs. Each lung consists of small chambers, or air sacs, surrounded by
capillaries. These air sacs provide a huge respiratory surface for the diffusion of oxygen and
carbon dioxide into and out of the blood.

Upper Respiratory Tract

The Nose

The nose is the gateway of the respiratory system. Air normally enters the respiratory
system through small openings called nostrils, which lead into hollow spaces in the nose called
nasal cavity. Hairs, called cilia, lining the nasal cavity prevent foreign particles from entering.
The walls of the nasal passages, like the rest of the air passageways in the respiratory system, are
lined with mucous membranes made up mainly of ciliated epithelial cells. Some epithelial cells
secrete mucus, a sticky fluid that traps bacteria, dust, and other particles in the air we breathe.
The mucus also moistens the air that we breathe. Just below the mucous membrane is a rich
supply of capillaries. As air passes through the nose, the capillaries warm the blood. Thus, the
nasal passages serve to filter, moisten, and warm inhaled air before it reaches the delicate lining
of the lungs.

Pharynx

From the nasal cavity, air passes into the pharynx, or throat, which is located behind the
mouth cavity. The adenoids and tonsils are lymphoid tissues found in the throat. They are part
of the body’s defense against infection. The pharynx is the common passageway for food and
air. Food that is being swallowed is prevented or blocked from entering the air tube by a thin
flap of muscle called epiglottis, that closes the air tube. This is the reason why you cannot
breathe while you are swallowing.
Regions of Pharynx:

 Nasopharynx – the upper part of the pharynx continuous with the nasal passages.
 Oropharynx – the part of the pharynx that is below the soft palate and above the
epiglottis and is continuous with the mouth.
 Laryngopharynx – the

Lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx

From the pharynx, air passes into the larynx, or voice box, which is made up largely of
cartilage. The larynx is made up largely of cartilage. The larynx is located at the upper end of the
trachea, which is the air tube leading to the lungs. The vocal cords are two pairs of membranes
that are stretched across the interior of the larynx. Another function of the larynx is to prevent
choking. The elongated space between the vocal cords is called the glottis.