Macronutrients
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds
(saccharides-starches and sugars) composed
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; hydrogen
and oxygen usually occur in ratio of 2:1 as in
H₂O.
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides or simple sugars are the
simplest form of carbohydrates. They are
sweet and since they require no digestion,
they can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the small intestine.
They include the following:
• Glucose (dextrose) or blood sugar is the
principal form in which carbohydrate is used
by the body. It is abundant in fruits, sweet
corn, and corn syrup.
• When a person does not reload used up
glycogen stores, body proteins are dismantled
allowing glucose to fuel these special cells.
This process in which protein is converted to
glucose is called gluconeogenesis.
They include the following:
• Fructose (levulose) is the sweetest of simple
sugars. It is found in honey, most fruits, and
some vegetables. It is converted into glucose
in the body.
• Galactose is not found free in foods. It is
produced, from lactose (milk sugar) by
digestion and is converted into glucose in the
body. Some infants are born with an inability
to metabolize galactose, a condition called
galactosemia.
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Disaccharides or double-sugars are 2
monosaccharides. They are sweet made up of
and, unlike monosaccharides, they must be
changed to simple sugars by hydrolysis before
they can be absorbed.
They include the following:
• Starch is the most significant polysaccharide
in human nutrition. Its major food sources
include cereal grains, potatoes and other root
vegetables, and legumes. It is converted
entirely into glucose upon digestion; is more
complex than sugars; and requires a longer
time to digest.
They include the following:
• Dextrins are not found free in foods. They
are formed as intermediate products in the
breakdown of starch.
They include the following:
• Cellulose forms the framework of plants
found in unrefined grains, vegetables, and
fruits. It is non digestible by humans: no
specific enzyme is present and provides
important bulk in the diet which helps move
digestive food mass along and stimulates
peristalsis. Main sources are stems and leaves
of vegetables, seed and grain coverings, skins,
and hulls. Fibers are the structural parts of
plants. They are non-digestible because
digestive enzymes are unable to break them
down. They lower the blood glucose levels of
people with diabetes mellitus.
They May Be Classified Into:
a. Soluble found in fruits and legumes,
barleys, and oats which delay gastrointestinal
transit and glucose absorption, and lower
blood cholesterol.
b. Insoluble found in wheat brans, corn brans
whole grain breads, cereals, and vegetables
which accelerate gastrointestinal transit,
increase fecal weight, slow down starch
hydrolysis, and delay glucose absorption.
They include the following:
• Pectins are non digestible, colloidal
polysaccharides having a gel quality Sources
include mostly fruits and are often used as
base for jellies. Pectins are also used to treat
diarrhea as they absorb toxins and bacteria in
the intestine. They bind cholesterol reducing
the amount the blood can absorb.
They include the following:
• Glycogens (animal starch) are formed from
glucose and stored in liver and muscle tissues.
Food sources include mainly meats and sea
foods. They are converted entirely into
glucose upon digestion. The hormones
glucagons help the liver convert alycogen into
glucose every time the body needs energy.
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Mouth
a. Enzyme-amylase (an enzyme of the saliva,
secreted by the parotid glands, acts on starch
to begin its breakdown to dextrins and
maltose) b. Action-usually, however, the food
does not stay in the mouth long enough for
much of this change to be completed, so that
food is conveyed into the stomach mostly in
starch form.
Stomach
a. Enzyme-none for the carbohydrates
b. Action - none; above action by ptyalin may
continue to a minor degree
Small Intestine
a. Enzyme - pancreatin enzyme, amylopsin,
converts starch into dextrins and maltose
b. Intestinal juice contains three disaccharides
sucrose, lactose, and maltose (which act on
their respective disaccharides sucrose, lactose
and maltose to produce monosaccharides
glucose, galactose, and fructose)
Functions of Carbohydrates
1. The principal function of carbohydrates is to
serve as a major source of energy for the
body.
2. Carbohydrates exert a protein-sparing
action. If insufficient carbohydrates are
available in the diet, the body will convert
protein into glucose in order to supply energy.
3. The presence of carbohydrates is necessary
for normal fat metabolism. If there is
insufficient carbohydrate, larger amounts of
fats are used for energy than the body is
equipped to handle, and oxidation is
incomplete.
4. Cellulose and closely related insoluble,
indigestible carbohydrates aid in normal
elimination. They stimulate the peristaltic
movements of the gastrointestinal tract and
absorb water to give bulk to the intestinal
contents.
5. They also supply significant quantities of
proteins, minerals, and B vitamins.
6. Lactose remains in the intestine longer than
other disaccharides, and this encourages the
growth of the beneficial bacteria.
7. Glucose has specific influences; it is
indispensable for the maintenance of the
functional integrity of the nerve tissue and it
is the sole source of energy for the brain.
Sources of Carbohydrates
1. Whole grains rich in iron, thiamine, niacin,
and other nutrients are important sources of
carbohydrates
2. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes are
important contributors to carbohydrate intake
from the vegetable and fruit groups because
they are daily items in many diets.
3. Milk is unique in that it is the only dietary
source of lactose. Each cup contains 12gm.
Cheese contains only traces of lactose.
4. Sugars and sweets are important sources of
carbohydrates next to breads and cereals, and
cane and beet sugars, honey, maple syrup,
jellies, jams, and candies.
Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
1. Weight control - Fibers rich in complex
carbohydrates tend to below in fat and added
sugars and can promote weight loss.
2. Heart disease - High-carbohydrate diets,
rich in whole grains. can protect an individual
against heart disease and stroke.
3. Cancer - High-carbohydrate diets can help
prevent many types of cancer.
4. Diabetes High-carbohydrate, low-fat diets
help control weight.
5. Gastrointestinal health - Dietary fibers
enhance the health of the large intestine.
FATS OR LIPIDS
FATS
Are organic compounds composed of corbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen Triglycerides or fats and
oils are fatty acid esters of glyceral. They
belong to class of fats and fat-related
compounds called lipids, Fats constitute 34%
of the energy in the human body.
Classification of Fats
A. Simple lipids are called neutral fats. The
chemical name for these basic fats is
triglycerides. This name indicates their
chemical structure, a glycerol base with three
fatty acids attached. Glyceral is derived from a
water-soluble form of carbohydrate.
B. Compound lipids are various combinations
of fats with other components. Three types of
compound lipids are important in human
nutrition-phospholipids, glycolipids, and
lipoproteins.
Three types of compound lipids
1. Phospholipids are compounds of fatty acids,
phosphoric acids, and nitrogenous bases.
a. Lecithins are the most widely distributed of
the phospholipids. They are added to food
products such as cheese, margarine, and
confections to aid emulsification.
b. Cephalins are needed to form
thromboplastin for the blood-clotting process.
c. Sphingomyelins are found in the brain and
other nerve tissues as components of myelin
sheath. Egg yolk and liver are good sources of
these phospholipids.
2. Glycolipids are compounds of fatty acids
combined with carbohydrates an is bases.
a. Cerebrosides are component of nerve
tissue and certain cell membranes where they
play a vital role in fat transport Their
carbohydrate component is galactose.
b. Gangliosides are made up of certain
glucose, galactose, and a complex compound
containing an amino sugar.
3. Lipoproteins are lipids combined with
proteins. They are formed primarily in the
liver and are found in cell and organelle
membranes, mitochondria, and lysosomes.
They are insoluble in water and are combined
in protein complex for their transport and
activity in aqueous medium
C. Derived lipids are simple derivatives for far
digestion or other more complex products.
They are fat substances produced from fats
and fat compounds dur digestive breakdown.
1. Fatty acids are the key refined fuel forms of
fat that the cell burns for energy.
Sources of Fatty Acids:
a. Saturated fats are those into which no
hydrogen can be added. Palmitic and stearic
acids are two examples of such fatty acids.
They are abundant in animal fats including
beef.
b. Monounsaturated fatty acids are those in
which two of the carbon atoms are joined by
a double bond. This means that an atom can
be added to each of the carbon. atoms at a
double bond. Oleic acid is the most abundant
monounsaturated fatty acid. Olive and peanut
oils are especially high in oleic acid, but most
fats contain generous amounts of this fatty
acid.
c. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are those in
which two or more double bonds are present.
It is abundant in most vegetable oils.
2. Glycerol is a water-soluble component of
triglycerides and is inconvertible with
carbohydrate. It comes out 10% of the fat.
After it becomes broken off in digestion, it
becomes available for the formation of
glucose in the diet.
3. Steroids are a class of fat-related
substances that contain sterols. A main
member of this group is cholesterol. It is a
complex fat-like compound found practically
in all body tissues, especially in the brain and
nerve tissues, bile, blood, and the liver where
most cholesterol is synthesized. Foods rich in
cholesterol are egg yolk, organ meats,
shellfish, and dairy fats.
The Omega-6/Omega-3 Ratio
• Humans should consume more omega-3
fatty acids from vegetable and marine sources
like cod liver oil, mackerel, salmon, and
sardines as well as crabs, shrimps, and
oysters.
Functions of Fats
A. Visible fats include lard, butter, margarine,
shortenings, salad oils, and visible fats of
meat.
B. Invisible fats are those available in milk,
cheese, eggs, nuts, and meat.
High in Saturated Fatty Acids:
• Whole milk, cream, ice cream, cheese made
from whole milk, egg yolk
• Medium fat or fatty meats; beef, lamb pork,
ham
• Bacon, butter, coconut oil, lamb fat, lard,
regular margarine, salt pork, hydrogenated
shortenings.
• Chocolates, chocolate candies, cakes,
cookies, pies, rich pudding.
High in Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids:
• Vegetable oils, safflower, corn, cotton seed,
soybean, sesame, sunflower

1. Fats are important sources of calories. It is
quite normal for the body to have deposits of
fat (adipose tissue) that serve as continuing
supply of energy each and every hour.
2. Fat is said to be protein-sparing because its
availability reduces the need to burn protein
for energy.
3. Fat is essential to maintain the constant
body temperature by providing effective
insulation underneath the skin.
4. Fat cushions vital organs such as the kidney
against injury.
• Salad dressings made from the above oils:
mayonnaise, French dressings
• Special margarine: liquid oil listed first on
label Fatty fish: salmon, tuna, herring
The essential fatty acids are not manufactured
in the body and must be supplied in the diet.
Linoleic acid
Is the primary member of the omega-6 family.
It is found in vegetable oils like corn, safflower,
soybean, and cottonseed, and poultry fats

5. Fat facilitates the absorption of the fat-

soluble vitamins A. D. E. and K.

6. Fat provides satiety and delays the onset of

hunger.

7. Fat contributes flavor and palatability to the

diet.

Food Sources
Is the primary member of the omega-3 family.
It is found in oils like flaxseed, canola, walnut,
wheat germ, and soy bean; nuts and seeds
like butternuts, walnuts, and soybean kernels;
and vegetables like soybeans. Linolenic acid
can be made into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) which are
essential for growth and development,
prevention or treatment of heart disease,
hypertension, arthritis, and cancer. It is also
found in human milk, shellfish and fish
Health Effects of Lipids
1. Heart disease - Elevated blood cholesterol
is a major risk factor for cardiovascular
diseases.
2. Risks from saturated fats - Lauric, myristic,
and palmitic acids raise blood cholesterol
levels. Stearic acid does not.
3. Benefits from monounsaturated fats - Olive
oil lowers risks of heart disease.
4. Benefits from omega-3 polyunsaturated
fats. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fats lower
blood cholesterol and prevent heart disease.
EPA sources like fish, eaten once a week, can
lower blood cholesterol and the risk of heart
attack and stroke.
5. Cancer - Fat does not instigate cancer
development but can promote it once it has
arisen.
6. Obesity-High-fat diets tend to store body fat
ably.
CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF FOODS
Not consume more than 200 milligrams of
cholesterol a day
• Cholesterol is only found in animal products.
Fruits, vegetables, grains, and all other plant
foods do not have any cholesterol at all.
TRANS FAT: The Fat Family
Trans Fat
• Trans fats, or trans-fatty acids are basically
artificial fats. A small amount of trans fats
occurs naturally in meat and dairy products.
Hydrogenation
• Trans, fats are made by a chemical process
called partial hydrogenation. Liquid vegetable
oil (an otherwise healthy monounsaturated
fat) is packed with hydrogen atoms and
converted into a solid fat.
Shelf Life and Texture
• Partially hydrogenated fats, or trans fats,
lengthen the shelf life of food. They also add a
certain pleasing mouth-feel to all manner of
processed foods, buttery crackers and
popcorn, crispy French fries, crunchy fish
sticks, creamy frostings, and melt-in-your
mouth pies and pastries. All these foods owe
those qualities to trans fats.
Worse Than Butter
• Saturated fats raise the total and bad (LDL)
cholesterol levels. Trans fats do the same, but
they also strip levels of good (HDL)
cholesterol, the kind that helps unblock
arteries. Trans fats also increase triglyceride
levels in the blood, adding to the danger of
cardiovascular disease
Common Trans Fat Sources
• Crackers
• Doughnuts French fries
• Cookies (also rich in saturated fat)
• Vegetable shortening
• Hard margarine
• Pastries (also rich in saturated fat)
Food which is High in Saturated Fat.
• Lard
• Butter
• Whole milk
• Pastries (also rich in trans fat) • Bottled salad dressing

• Cookies (also rich in trans fat) • Chips

• Learning to moderately eat fatty food is • Cookies

certainly easier than avoiding it. Moderate
• Corn oll
consumption of fat means eating a doughnut
or two and not a dozen, or a handful of chips • Cottonseed oil
rather than a family- sized serving.
• Deep-fot fried foods
What Happens When Trans Fat is Consumed?
• It is hardly surprising, therefore, that many • Imitation mayonnaise imitation sour cream
chronic health conditions have been linked to • Margarine and other hydrogenated fake
diets rich in trans fats. butter spreads Non-dairy creamers
• The ways in which trans fats lead to an • Pressurized whipped cream Processed, junk,
increased risk of coronary heart disease are and fake foods
well understood. But there are other diseases
such as cancer, diabetes, liver toxicity, and • Sandwich spreads
obesity that are believed to be associated • Shortenings
with eating trans fats, otherwise known as
hydrogenated food products. Step 2-Fighting Fat with Fats

Some physicians believe that trans fats also: As a general rule, opt for the real thing. Real
Food:
• Accelerate aging
• Dairy products such as eggs, butter, cream,
• Compromise the immune system milk, and cheese
• Damage the lungs Damage reproductive • Fish and shellfish
organs and their processes
• Fruits
• Contribute to mental decline and
chromosomal damage Increase problems with • Grains
mental functioning such as autism, ADD,
• Legumes (a simple dry fruit often referred to
ADHD, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease,
as a pod including alfalfa, clover, peas, beans,
and depression
and peanuts)
• Increase the risk for arthritis and
Step 2 - Fighting Fat with Fats
autoimmune disease
• Meat
Making Positive Changes
• Nuts
Step 1- Eliminating Trans Fats
• Oil, especially essential fatty acids (seed,
•Read the labels on everything in your
nut, and fish oils)
cupboards, refrigerator, and freezer. Avoid
sources of hydrogenated and partially • Poultry
hydrogenated fats, and damaged
• Sea algae
polyunsaturated oils.
• Seeds
Foods to avoid (the following items more
often than not contain trans fats): • Vegetables
• When trans fats are eliminated from the
diet, and food that is actually food including
naturally- occurring fats, is consumed, health
is optimized, investing in the body's future
and, ultimately. making an individual feeling
better.
• There is one final step to take after these
primary, vital measures toward replacing
health-defying trans fats with life-giving
nourishment.
Step 3-Cleanse, Rejuvenate, and
Supplement
• Start with a Clean Slate
• Some doctors recommend regular colon
cleansings, periodic liver flushes, and
revitalizing multi-vitamins as part of an
ongoing health regimen.
Detoxifying the Liver
• Detoxifying the liver can help remove
unwanted pollutants, and enable it to
function properly.
PROTEINS
• The term protein is taken from the Greek
word protos meaning primary, ranking first, or
occupying the first position. Similarly, protein
is the first substance recognized as a vital part
of a living tissue.
A. Simple proteins are those which yield only
amino acids upon hydrolysis. They include the
following:
1. Albumins are soluble in water and
coagulated by heat.
2. Globulins are insoluble in water, soluble in
dilute salt solution, and coagulated by heat.
3. Glutelins are insoluble in neutral solvents
but s
3. Lipoproteins are compounds of a protein
and a triglyceride or other lipids such as
phospholipids or cholesterol found in cell and
organelle membranes.
4. Phosphoproteins are compounds of
phosphoric acid joined in ester linkage to
protein found in casein of milk.
5. Chromoproteins are compounds of proteins
and non protein pigments found in
flavoproteins, hemoglobin, and cytochromes.
6. Metalloproteins are compounds or metals
(Cu. Mg, Zn, and Fe) attached to proteins
found in ferritin, hemosiderin, and transferin.
C. Derived proteins are products formed in
the various stages of hydrolysis of a protein
molecule.
5. Chromoproteins are compounds of proteins
and non protein pigments found in
flavoproteins, hemoglobin, and cytochromes.
6. Metalloproteins are compounds or metals
(Cu, Mg, Zn, and Fe) attached to protein found
in ferritin, hemosiderin, and transferin.
Chemical Stages of a Protein
A. Amino acid has a chemical structure that
combines both acid and base (amino) factors.
B. Essential and non-essential amino acids
1. Essential amino acids
• cannot be synthesized by the body and are
necessary in the diet.
Examples of Essential amino acids
Threonine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Valine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
2. Non-essential amino acids
• Non-essential amino acids can be
manufactured by the body and, therefore, are
not as necessary for consideration in the diet.
Examples of Non-essential amino acids
Glycine Alanine
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
Proline
Hydroxyproline
Cystine
Tyrosine
Serine Arginine
Histidine
Chemical Stages of a Protein
C. Complete and incomplete proteins
1. Complete proteins are those that contain all
the essential amino acids in sufficient quantity
and ratio to supply the body's needs. These
proteins are of animal origin-meat, milk,
cheese, and eggs.
Chemical Stages of a Protein
C. Complete and incomplete proteins
2. Incomplete proteins are those deficient in
one or more of the essential amino acids.
They are of plant origin-grains, legumes,
seeds, and nuts.
Digestion of Protein
1. Mouth
a. Enzyme - none
b. Action-only mechanical mastication
2. Stomach
a. Enzyme - pepsin, produced first as inactive
precursor to pepsinogen, then activated by
the hydrochloric acid
b. Action - converts protein into proteoses and
peptones
c. In infants, enzyme rennin converts casein
into coagulated curd.
3. Small intestine (Alkaline) a. Pancreas
a.1 Trypsin (produced first as inactive
precursor trypsinogen and then activated by
enterokinase) converts proteins, proteoses,
and peptones into polypeptides and peptides.
a.2 Chymotrypsin (produced first as inactive
precursor chymotrypsinogen and then
activated by active trypsin) converts proteoses
and peptones into polypeptides and
dipeptides; also coagulates milk.
a.3 Carboxypeptidase converts polypeptides
into simpler peptides, dipeptides, and amino
acids.
3. Small intestine (Alkaline) b. Intestine
b.1 Aminopeptidase converts polypeptides
into peptides and amino acids.
b.2 Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into
amino acids
Functions of Proteins
1. Proteins are used in repairing worn-out
body tissue proteins (anabolism) caused by
the continued wear and tear (catabolism)
going on in the body.
2. Proteins are used to build new tissue by
supplying the necessary amino acid building
blocks.
3. Proteins are a source of heat and energy.
One gram of protein contains 4 calories.
4. Proteins contribute to numerous essential
body secretions and fluids, enzymes, and
proteins. Some hormones have protein or
amino acid components. Mucus and milk are
largely protein. Sperm cells are likewise
largely protein as is the fluid in which the
sperm cells are contained
5. Proteins are important in the maintenance
of normal osmotic relations among the
various body fluids.
6. Proteins play a vital role in the resistance of
the body to diseases. Antibodies to specific
diseases are found as part of the plasma
globulin, especially in what is known as the
gamma globulin fraction of plasma.
7. Dietary proteins furnish the amino acids for
a variety of metabolic functions.
Sources of Protein
1. Complete protein foods - meat, fish,
poultry, egg, milk, cheese
2. Legumes, nuts
3. Breads and cereals
Requirement for Human Nutrition
A. Quality of protein fundamental to health
and life
B. General daily recommendation of the Food
and
Nutrition Board
1. Adult-0-9 g/kg BW
2. Children - Growth needs vary according to
age and growth patterns.
3. Pregnancy - Rapid growth requires an
increase of 30 g over that of a non-pregnant
woman.
4. Lactation - It requires an increase of 20 g.
Measures of Protein Quality
A. Biologic value (BV) - It measures the
effectiveness of protein quality in supporting
the body's needs.
B. Net protein utilization (NPU) - It also
measures how capably a protein is used by
the body. The difference is that NPU measures
retention of food nitrogen consumed while BV
measures food nitrogen absorbed.
C. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) - It measures
the increase in weight of a growing animal
and compares it with the intake.
Health Effects of Protein
1. Heart disease - Foods rich in animal protein
tend to be rich in saturated fats.
2. Cancer-Studies suggest a relationship
between high intake of animal protein and
some types of cancer like cancer of the
prostate gland, pancreas, kidneys, breast, and
colon.
3. Osteoporosis Calcium excretion rises as
protein intake
4. Weight control Protein rich foods are also
rich in fat which can lead to obesity with
associated health risks
5. Kidney diseases Excretion of end products
of protein metabolism depends on a sufficient
fluid intake and healthy kidneys. A high
protein diet increases the work of the kidneys.
Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
• Protein energy malnutrition is a condition
resulting from sufficiency of protein or energy
or both in the diet.
• Acute PLM occurs in children who are thin
for their height.
• Chronic PEM occurs in children who are
short for their age.
There are two forms of PEM
1. Marasmus-Severe deprivation of food over
a long period of time characterized by
insufficiency of protein and energy intake.
2. Kwashiorkor This condition reflects an
abrupt and recent deprivation of food which
develops rapidly as a consequence of protein
deficiency or an illness like measles.