NUTRITION

SUMITRA CHHOTARAY, M.Sc (Food & Nutrition)

OUAT, BHUBANESWAR
•General names for carbohydrates include
sugars, starches, saccharides, and
polysaccharides. The term saccharideis
derived from the Latin word " sacchararum"
from the sweet taste of sugars.
•Carbohydrates form the major part of the diet
& provides 60 to 70% of the calorie
requirement.
•The name "carbohydrate" means a
"hydrate of carbon." The name derives from
the general formula of carbohydrate is
Cx (H2O)y‐x and y may or may not be equal
and range in value from 3 to 12 or more. For
example glucose is: C6(H2O)6or is more
commonly written, C6H12O6.
 The family of carbohydrates that contain
this chemical group are called ketoses.

• The
family of carbohydrates that contain this
chemical group are called aldoses.
CARBOHYDRATES EXAMPLES OBTAINED FROM

MONOSACCHARIDES( sim i)Glucose(Dextrose) •Corn syrup, fruits, vegetables,

ple sugars which contain ii)Fructose(Levulos honey
a single unit of sugar e) •fruits, vegetables, honey
•Lactose
molecule) iii) Galactose •Malt
iv)Mannose

DISACCHARIDES(Double i)Sucrose •Cane ,beet, fruits,vegetables

sugars which contain two ii)Lactose •Milk
unit of monosaccharide iii)Maltose •Sprouting grains& digestion of
unit) starch
POLY SACCHARIDES Digestible:
(Complex compounds •Starch •Grain products, root
which contain many vegetables , legumes
monosaccharide units) •Dextrin •Digestion of starch(first
chemical change)
•Glycogen •Animal starch
Indigestible:
A. Cellulose •Structural part of
B. Hemi cellulose- fruit ,vegetable, cereals, seeds&
• Pectin nuts
 Monosaccharides are simple sugars, consisting of
single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit. They
cannot be hydrolyzed to yield simpler forms of
sugar.
 They can be subdivided into trioses, tetroses,
pentoses, hexoses, heptoses and octoses,
depending upon the number of carbon atoms
they possess.
 Carbohydrates with an aldehyde as their
functional group are called as Aldoses. Those
with keto as functional group are called as
ketoses.
 Two monosaccharides joined by covalent bond
called a glycosidic linkage
 Bond is created between the C-1 of one sugar
and the -OH of another carbon
 Glycosidic Linkage
 Name Empirical Formula Aldoses Ketoses

Trioses C3H6O3 Glycerose Dihydroxy acetone

Tetroses C4H8O4 Erythrose Erythrulose

Pentoses C5H10O5 Ribose Ribulose

Hexoses C6H12O6 Glucose Fructose

 Glucose: This monosaccharide is also
called dextrose or grape sugar. It is widely
distributed in nature and found in fruits,
vegetables and cell sap. It is the most
abundant carbohydrate found in corn sugar
and is present in corn syrup, honey and
molasses. In the animal body it is an end
product of digestion of starch, sucrose,
maltose and lactose. Glucose is the
carbohydrate found in the blood of all animals
and man where it serves as source of instant
fuel or energy for the body. Glucose is
oxidized in the body to produce energy. The
normal blood glucose level should be 80 –
100 mg/dl.
Fructose: This is also a
monosaccharide and is also
known as levulose or fruit
sugar. It occurs in fruits and
honey. Fructose consumed in
the diet is rapidly converted
into glucose in the body.
 Galactose: Galactose does not occur in the
free State in common foods. It occurs in
combination with glucose in lactose (a
disaccharide) present in milk. During
digestion, when milk is made into curds,
glucose is converted into lactic acid and
galactose is left behind. Galactose can be
converted into glucose in the body and vice
versa.
 Disaccharides (simple sugars) are two sugars
linked through together including:
◦ Sucrose (table sugar), composed of glucose and
fructose
◦ Lactose (milk sugar), composed of glucose and
galactose
◦ Maltose (malt sugar), composed of glucose and
glucose
 Disaccharides
 Sucrose:
. Sucrose occurs in large amounts in
sugarcane, palm juice (palm sugar) and beet root
(beet sugar). It occurs along with glucose and
fructose in several fruits. On hydrolysis, it gives a
mixture of glucose and fructose known as invert
sugar.
 Lactose: It occurs in human milk (7 %) and in the
milk of other animals (mammals) (Cow’s milk and
buffalo’s milk 4 %). It is formed by the combination
of one molecule each of glucose and galactose in the
mammary gland. Lactose is hydrolysed in digestive
tract into glucose and galactose.
 Maltose: This occurs in malt prepared from
germinated cereal grains. On hydrolyses it gives two
molecules of glucose.
 Digestible Indigestible

Starch (Grain products, Legumes, Cellulose (Structural part of fruits,

root vegetables) Vegetables, wholegrain
cereals ,seeds & nuts)

Dextrin ( Result of first chemical Hemicelluloses:

change in digestion of starch) a) Pectin ( Fruits like apple, guava
etc.)
b) Agar-Agar ( A gelatinous
product made from sea weed)
Glycogen (Animal body convert
glucose to glycogen which can
readily be converted back into
 Starch: Plants store carbohydrates in the form of
starch and it is the main source of nourishment for
human race. Cereal grains, seeds, roots like potato,
tapioca, yam, colocasia and plantain contain
considerable amount of starch. On cooking starch
absorbs water and it swells and ruptures. This
thickening quality of starch is used in cookery to
produce a variety of dishes. Maize starch and corn
flour are better ‘thickening agents’ than rice or
wheat starch. All cooked starches are broken down
into glucose in the digestive system.
 Dextrin: When starch is partially broken into
fragments either by digestion or by acids the
compounds called dextrins are formed. Dextrin on
further hydrolysis is broken down into maltose .
 Pectin: It is a polysaccharide with no nutritional
significance. It has jellying characteristic and is useful
in the preparation of jam and jelly. It contributes to the
palatability of foods.
 Glycogen: Animals store carbohydrate in the body as
glycogen. It is stored in the liver and muscles. This is
the form of immediate energy for the body. It is also
known as animal starch.
 Cellulose: It is an insoluble, indigestible
polysaccharide. More than 3000 glucose units are there
in cellulose but it is not of human utilization. Cattle can
digest cellulose. Even though it is not of much food
value it provides bulk to the diet and thus helps in
movements of the large intestine. It prevents
constipation and to an extent, cancer of the bowel. It
helps in reducing the cholesterol level in blood as well
as body weight. A high fibre diet can help in the
treatment of obesity as it delays digestion and
contributes satiety to obese people.
 Energy supply
The most important function of carbohydrate is to supply
energy or fuel for the body. Glucose is readily utilized by
the body for energy needed for physical activities and
also for the body cells. The brain, nerve tissues, and
erythrocytes are dependent on the constant supply of
glucose from the blood to meet their energy needs. Each
gram of carbohydrate provides 4 kcals of energy.
 Carbohydrates as reserve fuel
Carbohydrate in the form of glycogen is stored in liver
and muscle including heart muscle. It is used for
muscular exercise especially in emergency.
 Protein sparing action
If carbohydrate supply in the diet is adequate, protein is
spared for its important functions. This effect by
carbohydrate is called protein sparing effect. Insufficient
intake of carbohydrates forces amino acids to be de-
aminated and converted to fatty acids for energy purpose.
 Carbohydrate for fat metabolism
Carbohydrates are needed for complete and normal
metabolism of fats, thus preventing acidosis.
 Carbohydrate for non essential amino acid synthesis
Carbohydrate provides the carbon skeleton for the
synthesis of non essential amino acids in the body.
 Carbohydrate for immunity
Carbohydrates are an important part of some compounds
such as immune polysaccharides which increase
resistance of the body to infection.
 Carbohydrates in nucleic acids and other compounds
Carbohydrates and their derivatives form part of nucleic
acid such as DNA and RNA and metabolic compounds
such as galactolipids, chondroitin sulphate and
galactosides.
 Detoxifying function of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have protective and detoxifying
action in liver. The liver is protected against
bacterial toxins by producing glycuronic acid or
acetyl groups from carbohydrates which are
excreted through kidneys. For this purpose
glycogen is used. Thus carbohydrates play a
significant role in removing poisonous
substances from the liver.
 Lactose as probiotics

Carbohydrates, especially lactose help the growth

of desirable bacteria in the small intestine and
help the synthesis of some B-complex
vitamins in the intestinal tract.
 Lactose-Calcium absorption
Lactose also helps in the absorption of Calcium
 Carbohydrates in the diet

Carbohydrates provide flavour and variety to the

diet. Cellulose and other
indigestible polysaccharides add bulk to the diet
and helps in intestinal motility. Carbohydrates
are needed to prevent dehydration.
Benefits of carbohydrate foods
In their natural state Carbohydrate foods have many
benefits
•They are high in fibre
•Low in fat
•Good sources of vitamins  and minerals
Foods Carbohydrate (%)
Rich Sources
Sugar, jiggery, sago, tapioca flour, 85-99
arrow root flour
Cereals and millets 63-79
Dried fruits(raisins, dates, figs, mango
and jack fruit etc) 67-77

Good Sources
Pulses 56-60
Whole milk powder 38-39
Skimmed milk powder 54-55
Roots and tubers 22-39

Fair Sources
Fresh fruits 10-25
Milk, cow’s 4
Milk, buffalo 4
Nuts and oil seeds 10-25

Tender legumes 15-20

 Mild deficiency results in
utilization of fat for energy

 Severe deprivation , fats too

cannot be oxidized completely so
large amount of ketone bodies
accumulated in the body

Increase the incidence of dental caries
 Cause obesity because more calories

are ingested than expended

 Irritate the gastrointestinal mucosa
 Depress appetite
 Increase the blood triglyceride level

which in turn leads to heart disease.

The body has a specific need for carbohydrate as
a source of energy for the brain and other tissues
for performing the physical activities.

Age group CHO Calories as % of

total Calories
Adults 50-70

Pregnant and lactating mothers 40-60

Infants (1-12 months) 40-50

Preschool children (1-5 years) 40-60

Older children and adolescents 50-70

All the carbohydrate molecules have been hydrolyzed
into their simplest monosaccharide form, they can be
absorbed out of the digestive tract and into the
bloodstream. The digested sugars pass into the micro
villi of the epithelial cells and then enter the capillaries
found in the wall of the small intestine. The absorbed
substances are now in the bloodstream, and with the
exception of a quick movement to the liver, they are
ready to be transported to the body cells.
& broken down to glucose and release energy in the
form of ATP.

The major metabolic processes in carbohydrates
are:
 i. Glycolysis: Glycolysis is the sequence of

reactions that convert glucose into pyruvate with

the concomitant trapping of the energy as ATP.
 ii. The citric acid cycle: It is the final common

oxidative pathway for carbohydrates, fats and

proteins. It is also a source of precursors for
biosynthesis of various biomolecules. The acetyl
CoA that enters in this pathway is completely
oxidised to carbon dioxide and water with
concomitant production of reducing equivalents,
namely NADH and FADH2.
 iii. The hexose monophosphate shunt: It is an
alternative pathway to the glycolytic pathway and the
citric acid cycle for the oxidation of glucose to carbon
dioxide and water with the generation of reduced
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)
molecules and ribose 5- phosphate.
 iv. Gluconeogenesis: It is a biosynthetic pathway

that generates glucose from non-carbohydrate

precursors.
 v. Glycogenesis: It is a pathway by which glycogen

is synthesised from glucose

 vi. Glycogenolysis: