CARBOHYDRATES

JAMESTON S. ADORABLE,
RND
INSTRUCTOR
DEFINITION:
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain
CARBON, HYDROGEN & OXYGEN.

• The general formula is CnH2nOn

• Carbohydrates provide the chief source of energy in

most diet

• In animals, carbohydrates are used as storage for

energy and are found in milk, blood and tissue of
animals.
FORMATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

• 6CO2 + 6H2O ==> C6H12O6 + 6O2

 
• Photosynthesis is carried out in the chloroplasts of
plant cells using the green pigment chlorophyll. The
glucose produced is converted into starch. Starch is a
polymer made up of repeating glucose units.
CLASS Sub-Group Principal Components

Sugars Monosaccharide Glucose, fructose,

(1-2 monosaccharides (1 sugar unit) galactose,
) Disaccharide Xylose
(2 sugar unit) Sucrose, lactose,
maltose, trehalose
Sugar alcohols __________ Sorbitol, mannitol,
(polyols) lactitol, xylitol,erythritol,
isomaltitol, maltitol
Oligosaccharides Maltooligosaccharides Maltodextrins
(3-9 (alpha-glucans)
monosaccharides) Non-alpha- Raffinose, stachyose,
glucanoligasaccharides fructo- and
galactooligosaccharides,
polydextrose, inulin
Polysaccharides Starch Amylose, amylopectin
( > 9 (alpha-glucans) ,modified starches,
monosaccharides) Non-starch glycogen
Cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectins, hydrocolloids,
fructans, dextrins
CARBOHYDRATE
CLASSIFICATION

C OH glucose fructose galactose

C
C6H12O6
C O maltose sucrose lactose
OH
C OH C
C OH
OH

maltodextrin amylose
starch amylopectin
starch
CARBOHYDRATES CAN ALSO
BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:

Complexity of sugar molecules

• 1.

and number of sugar unit in its

chemical nature

• Monosaccharides
• Disacharrides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMPLEXITY
OF SUGAR MOLECULES AND NUMBER OF
SUGAR UNITS:

• MONOSACCHARIDES
• Carbohydrates that can no longer be hydrolysed  into
simpler components since it has only one sugar unit.
MONOSACCHARIDES

• Triose ( 3 Carbon)
• Tetrose (4 Carbon)
• Pentose (5 Carbon)
• Ribose

• Hexose (6 Carbon)
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
EXAMPLES OF MONOSACCHARIDE

HEXOSES (C6H12O6)

• Glucose: Most common hexose in food.

Sources:
grapes, corn, honey, acid hydrolysis of
starch, digestive end products of sugars and
starches
• Fructose: (fruit sugar or levulose) It is the
sweetest of all sugars.

Sources:
Honey, ripe fruits, nectar of flowers,
molasses, Digestive end product of sucrose (It
is changed to glucose in the liver and
intestine.)Hydrolysable from sucrose and inulin
• Galactose : Part of Lactose in milk;
Part of pectin in fruits ( Responsible
component of ripening of fruit.
• Sources:

Digestive end product of lactose

• Ribose and Deoxyribose
-An important component of co-enzymes and
the backbone of RNA and DNA
Source: derived from nucleic acids

• Riboluse
- They are important in the formation of
many bioactive substances.
- Carbon dioxide at the start of the
photosynthesis process in green plants (carbon
dioxide trap).

Source: derived from nucleic acids

• Xylose
- Also known as wood sugar.
- It is the precursor to hemicellulose -
white crystalline sugar, C5H10O5, used in
dyeing and tanning.

Source: Derived from wood gum

 DISACCHARIDES
• are composed of two units of
monosaccharide. Upon
hydrolysis, they yield two
monosaccharide that are called
invert sugar.
• Sucrose
• Lactose
• Maltose
EXAMPLES OF DISACCHARIDES

• Sucrose (table sugar)

Usually called as table sugar (beet
-

or cane sugar) and the most common

form of sugar in cooking and table
service. It is hydrolysed into one
molecule of glucose and one of
fructose.

Sources : Table sugar, Cane, Sugar

 EXAMPLES OF DISACCHARIDES
• Lactose(milk sugar)
- Has a special function in infant feeding.
It is hydrolysed into one molecule of glucose and
one of galactose

- It is slowly digested compared to other disaccharides thus

allowing the growth of beneficial bacteria; and
- least sweet than any other sugars.
Source: Milk and milk product (Milk of mammals)
• Maltose(malt sugar)
- When maltose is hydrolysed, it
yields two molecules of glucose.
- Used in the production of beer

Source: Through the action of the

enzyme diastase on starch cereal
3. OLIGOSACCHARIDES

- complex carbohydrates that have 3 to 10

saccharide units.
Raffinose
Stachyose

Sources: Sugar beets and legumes, Peas,

beans, lima beans
 POLYSACCHARIDES

- are carbohydrates with more than 10

sugar units.
- can further be classified into
digestible, partially digestible and
indigestible carbohydrates.
 EXAMPLES OF
POLYSACCHARIDES
DIGESTIBLE
• Starch
The world’s most abundant and cheap s of carbohydrate. It is the storage
form of carbohydrates plants
Sources: Cereal grains, rice, wheat, rye, sorghum, millet, tubers, unripe
fruits and vegetables, legumes
• Glycogen
It is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals. Muscle glycogen is
used directly to supply energy for the surrounding tissues during work and
exercise.
Source: Livers, oysters, muscle meat
• Dextrin
- carbohydrate produced by partial hydrolysis of starch or glycogen.
Hydrolysed by amylase.
Source: Toasted breads, Intermediate products of starch digestion
CARBOHYDRATES CLASSIFICATION

amylose
starch amylopectin
starch
 GLYCOGEN

Glucose molecules

1-4 glycosidic bond

-1-6 glycosidic bond

Major storage form of carbohydrate in animals

PARTIALLY DIGESTIBLE

• Inulin
- Acts like soluble fiber. It increase the
production of bifidobacteria and helps increase
the resistance to infection.

Sources: Tubers & rootcrops and artichoke,

onion and garlic
INDIGESTIBLE

• Cellulose
Is a nonstarh carbohydrate polymer made up of straight chain
glucose molecules linked by beta bond
Sources: Skins of fruits, covering of nuts and legumes, stems,
mature leaves

• Hemicellulose
is a non starch carbohydrate polymer made of glucose, xylose,
and other monosaccharides. It is less polymerized and can be
hydrolized by dilute acids.
(e.g. agar-agar & pectins)
Source: seaweeds and unripe fruit, old vegetables
DERIVATIVES OF
CARBOHYDRATES
  Source
Citric acid and fruits
Malic acid
Ethyl alcohol Fermented liquors

Lactic acid Milk and milk

products
DIETARY FIBERS
- CAN EITHER BE SOLUBLE OR INSOLUBLE

FIBERS, ALSO CALLED ROUGHAGE, ARE

INDIGESTIBLE PART OF THE FOOD. IT COMES
FROM PLANT SOURCES AND CONTAINS
POLYSACCHARIDES SUCH AS CELLULOSE,
HEMICELLULOSE, PECTINS, GUMS, MUCILAGES,
AND LIGNINS, BUT THE MOST POPULAR OF ALL
IS THE CELLULOSE.
INSOLUBLE FIBERS
-THEY USUALLY DO NOT DISSOLVE IN WATER
CELLULOSE – IS A NONSTARH CARBOHYDRATE POLYMER
MADE UP OF STRAIGHT CHAIN GLUCOSE MOLECULES
LINKED BY BETA BOND AND CAN BE FOUND IN WHOLE
WHEAT FLOUR, BRAN AND VEGETABLES.

HEMICELLULOSE –IS A NONSTARCH CARBOHYDRATE

POLYMER MADE OF GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE, XYLOSE,
AND OTHER MONOSACCHARIDES. THIS CAN BE FOUND
IN BRAN AND WHOLE GRAINS.
SOLUBLE FIBERS –
THEY DISSOLVE OR SWELL IN WATER. THEY ARE NOT BROKEN DOWN BY HUMAN ENZYMES, BUT INSTEAD
CAN BE METABOLIZED (OR FERMENTED) BY BACTERIA PRESENT IN THE LARGE INTESTINE.

PECTINS- FIBER MADE OF GALACTURONIC ACID AND

OTHER MONOSACCHARIDES. BECAUSE IT ABSORBS
WATER AND FORMS GEL, IT IS OFTEN USED IN JAMS AND
JELLIES. THIS CAN BE DERIVED FROM CITRUS FRUITS,
APPLES, STRAWBERRIES AND CARROTS

MUCILAGES – DIETARY FIBERS THAT CONTAIN GALACTOSE,

MANNOSE AND OTHER MONOSACCHARIDES.
 FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. Structural function
a. dietary fiber – cellulose

b. membrane function
• Glycoproteins
- transmembrane
glycoprotein in RBC’s
2. Storage of Energy and
Energy Production
• Starch (plants)
• Glycogen (animals)

3. Important in the biology of

DNA and the nucleic acids

• Ribose
4. Cell Recognition
•
UTILIZATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
Utilization of Carbohydrates: Digestion
 Utilization of Carbohydrates: Absorption

Substances or nutrients pass

through the intestinal membrane
through the process of osmosis in
one of two ways: 1) diffusion or 2)
active transport.
CARBOHYDRATE ABSORPTION

• Active transport
• Glucose
• Galactose

• Facilitated diffusion
• Fructose
CARBOHYDRATE ABSORPTION
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

• Glucose is key player

• Storing glucose as glycogen
• Liver storage
• Condensation into glycogen (Glycogenesis)
• Hydrolysis for release of glucose when needed
(Glycogenolysis)
• Muscle storage
• Hoards glycogen immediately
ilization of Carbohydrates: Metabolis

GLYCOLYSIS
Utilization of Carbohydrates: Metabolism
(Glycolysis)

Glycolysis is the pathway for the catabolism of glucose that

leads to pyruvate.
Utilization of Carbohydrates: Metabolism

CITRIC ACID
CYCLE
KREB’S CYCLE
Utilization of Carbohydrates: Metabolism
(Citric acid cycle or kreb’s cycle)

Pyruvate from glycolysis enters into

the Citric Acid Cycle . This cycle occurs in
the mitochondria of the cell in aerobic
conditions. The pyruvate loses a carbon
dioxide group, forming acetyl-CoA, the
compound which forms a link for many
other pathways and helps build other
compounds. The citric acid cycle pathway
consists of eight reactions that process
incoming molecules of Acetyl CoA. The
carbon atoms leave the cycle in the form
of molecules of carbon dioxide. The
hydrogen atoms and electrons leave the
cycle in the form of reduced coenzymes
NADH and FADH2. One Acetyl CoA
molecule entering the citric acid cycle
produces three molecules of NADH, one
of FADH2, and one of GTP.
Utilization of Carbohydrates: Metabolism

ELECTRON
TRANSPORT CHAIN
Utilization of Carbohydrates:
Metabolism
(Electron-transport chain)

The electron transport chain is the

primary site for ATP synthesis, and
occurs in the mitochondria. This
pathway involves a series of reactions
that pass electrons from NADH and
FADH to molecular oxygen. Each carrier
in the series has an increasing affinity
for electrons. Four of the carriers,
known as cytochromes, contain iron,
which accepts and then transfers the
electrons. As NADH and FADH2 release
their hydrogen atoms and electrons,
NAD+ and FAD are regenerated for
return to the citric acid cycle.
BLOOD GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS
RECOMMENDE
D DAILY INTAKE
OF
CARBOHYDRAT
E
 RECOMMENDED INTAKES OF
STARCH & FIBERS

• DRI for carbohydrates

• 45 to 65% of energy requirement

• Fiber
• DRI: 14 grams per 1000-kcalories
• No UL: High Fiber Intake = 30-35 gms
ALTERNATIVE SWEETENERS

• Artificial sweeteners
• Non-nutritive sweeteners
• Large doses and adverse effects

• Stevia – an herbal product

• Generally recognized as safe
(GRAS)

• Sugar alcohols
• Provide kcalories
• Benefits and side effects
HEALTH EFFECTS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• DIABETES
• CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
• CONSTIPATION
• DENTAL CARIES
• KETOSIS
• PEM
• OBESITY
CARBOHYDRATES,
CALORIES, AND
CONTROVERSIES
CARBOHYDRATES’ CALORIE
CONTRIBUTIONS

• Obesity and the link to

carbohydrates
• Total daily energy intakes have
increased
• Activity levels have declined
• Increase in body weight
CARBOHYDRATES’ CALORIE
CONTRIBUTIONS

• Increase in consumption
of added sugars through
cravings and addiction
• High-fructose corn syrup
• Body fat stores