CARBOHYDRATES

Prepared by: MS. STEFFY JELL C. LARGO

What is Carbohydrates?

The term carbohydrate was originally used to describe compounds

that were literally "hydrates of carbon" because they had the
empirical formula CH2O.

They are now defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes and

polyhydroxyketones or substances which on hydrolysis yields either
or both of these compounds.
Functions of Carbohydrates

Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose. Glucose is the

only sugar used by the body to provide energy for its tissues.

Sparing the use of proteins for energy. Maintaining a regular intake

of carbohydrates will prevent protein from being used as an energy
source. .
Functions of Carbohydrates

Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis.

Biological recognition processes. Carbohydrates not only serve

nutritional functions, but are also thought to play important roles in
cellular recognition processes.

Carbohydrates add on to the taste and appearance of food item,

thus making the dish tempting and mouthwatering.
Functions of Carbohydrates?

Flavor and Sweeteners.

It is essential for proper intestinal health. It stimulates the digestive

system and helps reduce the risk of digestive disorders.

The consumption of soluble and insoluble fiber makes the

elimination of waste much easier thus, preventing constipation.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to Complexity

monosaccharides - contain a single sugar unit. They cannot be

broken down chemically into simpler carbohydrates, also known
as simple sugars
Examples: glucose , galactose
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to Complexity

disaccharides - contain two sugar units

Examples:
sucrose (common table sugar) = glucose + fructose
lactose (major sugar in milk) = glucose + galactose
maltose (product of starch digestion) = glucose + glucose
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to Complexity

oligosaccharide – contain 3-10 sugar units

Examples: raffinose
melizitose
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to Complexity

polysaccharides - contain more than 10 sugar units as in This

must contain polymers of monosaccharide unit.

Examples: starch, glycogen

 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to the type of carbonyl group

Aldose- any monosaccharide sugar that contains an aldehyde

group , (-CHO).
Example: glucose

ketose - a simple sugar that has a ketone as its carbonyl group

Example: fructose
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to the number of carbon atoms present

Pentoses
Example: arabinose

Hexoses
Example: mannose
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to the number of carbon atoms present

Trioses
Example: glyceraldehyde

Tetroses
Example: threose
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

According to reactivity

reducing - contain a hemiacetal or hemiketal group. Sugars

include, glucose, galactose, fructose, and maltose.

non-reducing - contain no hemiacetal groups. Sucrose and all

polysaccharides are in this group.
STEREOISOMERS AND
STEREOCHEMISTRY
Saccharides with identical functional groups but with different spatial
configurations have different chemical and biological properties

Stereochemisty is the study of the arrangement of atoms in three-

dimensional space.
Stereoisomers are compounds in which the atoms are linked in the
same order but differ in their spatial arrangement.
Compounds that are mirror images of each other but are not
identical or they are non-superimposable mirror images
of each other are called enantiomers.
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
MONOSACCHARIDES
The monosaccharides are carbohydrates which cannot be broken down
by hydrolysis into simple sugars. They are derivatives of polyhydric
alcohols.

GLUCOSE - is also called dextrose because it is dextrorotatory

 it is referred to as grape sugar because it is present in high
concentration in grapes
 also known as "blood sugar", the immediate source of energy
for cellular respiration
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
MONOSACCHARIDES

FRUCTOSE
 is a ketose sugar
 is considered as the sweetest sugar and the sweetness of many
fruits is due to the presence of D-fructose and for this reason it
is sometimes called fruit sugar
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
MONOSACCHARIDES
GALACTOSE
 is found in biological systems as component of the disaccharide
lactose or milk sugar. This is the principal sugar found in the
milk of most mammals.
 it is also found in glycolipids, fat-like substances that are
components of the brain and nervous system
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
DISACCHARIDES
The disaccharides are group of compound sugars composed of two
monosaccharides linked together through the glycosidic bond with the
loss of water.
LACTOSE
 Latin word for milk--"lact"; a disaccharide found in milk
containing glucose and galactose
 it is the least sweet common sugars, only 1/6 as sweet as
sucrose
 is used in high calcium diets and in infant foods
 it is found in urine of pregnant women
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
DISACCHARIDES
The disaccharides are group of compound sugars composed of two
monosaccharides linked together through the glycosidic bond with the
loss of water.

MALTOSE
 French word for "malt"; a disaccharide containing two units of
glucose; found in germinating grains, used to make beer is the
most common reducing disaccharide
 it is found as constituent of starch and glycogen
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
DISACCHARIDES
The disaccharides are group of compound sugars composed of two
monosaccharides linked together through the glycosidic bond with the
loss of water.

SUCROSE
 is commonly called cane sugar or beet sugar since it is
commercially prepared from sugar cane and sugar beets
 is composed of glucose and fructose
 it can be hydrolyzed by the enzyme invertase. The mixture of
two sugars is called invert sugar
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
POLYSACCHARIDES
The polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates of high molecular weight
composed of many monosaccharide units combined through the loss of
molecules of water.

STARCH
 composed of 80% – 85% amylopectin and 15% - 20% amylose
 which is sometimes called amylum, is the most important
source of carbohydrates in the diet
 is the reserve food in plants
 is a heterogeneous material composed of the glucose polymers
amylase and amylopectin
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
POLYSACCHARIDES
The polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates of high molecular weight
composed of many monosaccharide units combined through the loss of
molecules of water.
GLYCOGEN
 is often called animal starch, is a glucose polysaccharide found
in animal tissue and it is the storage of polysaccharide of
animals
 it is stored in the in the liver and skeletal muscle
 reserve material of animal organisms and yeast. Muscle
glycogen is mainly used to provide energy used for running of
muscles.
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
POLYSACCHARIDES
The polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates of high molecular weight
composed of many monosaccharide units combined through the loss of
molecules of water.

CELLULOSE
 is probably the single most abundant organic molecule in the
biosphere. It is the major structural material of which plants
are made.
 It removes constipation, counteracts formation of digestive
tract tumors, lowers glucose level in blood, slows down body
mass increment.
IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
OXIDATION

Sugars may be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on

their reactivity with Tollens', Benedict's or Fehling's reagents.

 If a sugar is oxidized by these reagents it is called reducing,

since the oxidant (Ag(+) or Cu(+2)) is reduced in the reaction,
as evidenced by formation of a silver mirror or precipitation
of cuprous oxide.
IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
OXIDATION

 Tollens' test is commonly used to detect aldehyde functions;

and because of the facil interconversion of ketoses and
aldoses under the basic conditions of this test, ketoses such as
fructose also react and are classified as reducing sugars.
IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
OXIDATION
IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
OXIDATION
IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
REDUCTION

Sodium borohydride reduction of an aldose makes the ends of the

resulting alditol chain identical, HOCH2(CHOH)nCH2OH, thereby
accomplishing the same configurational change produced by
oxidation to an aldaric acid. Thus, allitol and galactitol from
reduction of allose and galactose are achiral, and altrose and talose
are reduced to the same chiral alditol.
IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
OSAZONE FORMATION

The osazone reaction was developed and used by Emil

Fischer to identify aldose sugars differing in configuration
only at the alpha-carbon.
COMMON DISORDERS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes)

 It occurs when the pancreas cannot produce insulin, a hormone essential for moving
glucose from the blood into cells. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder, in
which the body makes antibodies that attack the insulin-producing cells in the
pancreas.

Type 2 diabetes (noninsulin dependent)

 It is the most common type of diabetes. It occurs when glucose builds up in the
blood due to the body's inability to use insulin effectively.
COMMON DISORDERS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE

 The biochemical defect is characterized by a marked decrease in the level of lactase

in the small intestine. Because this enzyme is at very low levels in the
lactasedeficient patient, whatever lactose enters the system cannot be readily
broken down into glucose and galactose.

GALACTOSEMIA
 This disease is the result of the lack of an enzyme necessary for the conversion of
galactose to glucose after monosaccharides have been absorbed into the
bloodstream and have entered the cells.
COMMON DISORDERS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

HYPOGLYCEMIA
 It is a condition characterized by low levels of blood glucose. In rare
instances, this disorder is caused by a tumor of the pancreas which
synthesizes high amounts of insulin and is not under feedback
regulation.
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