CARBOHYDRATES

Get 1/4
1. Type of active constituent that is
responsible for its therapeutic
effect
2. Type of active constituent cause
precipitation or other chemical
changes in medicinal
preparation
3. Methods of Classification of
drugs.
 CARBOHYDRATES
• As the name suggest, are defined as
a group of compounds composed
of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen. Wherein the latter two
elements are in the same
proportion with water and is
expressed in by formula of
(CH2O)n, that is Hydrates of
Carbon
NEW DEFINITION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Are polyhydroxy aldehyde or

polyhydroxy ketones or
compound that on hydrolyses
produce either of the above.
 Carbohydrates
• Compounds composed of C, H, and O as
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone alcohol.
• The most abundant organic molecule in
nature
• Called as hydrates of Carbon
• Building blocks: monosaccharide
• Empirical formula: (CH2O)n
• First products of photosynthesis
• the H and O has the same ratio as that of
water, thus they are named as CARBO +
HYDRATES
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

• Number of carbon atoms in the

molecule
– Diose, triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
• Sugar Units
▪ A. Sugars
▪ Monosaccharides
▪ Disaccharides
▪ Polysaccharides
▪ Homoglycans
▪ a. Starch- Glucosan- yields glucose units
▪ b. Inulin- Fructosan- yields fructose units
▪ c. Cellulose- Glucosan- yields glucose units
▪ Heteroglycans
▪ a. Gums and Mucilages
▪ b. Glycosides
• Functional Groups
– Aldehyde
– Ketone
– Alcohol
 # of Name
Carbon
EXAMPLES
ALDOSE (-OSE) KETOSE (-ULOSE)

2 Diose Hydroxyacetaldehyde NA

3 Triose Glyceraldehyde DHA

4 Tetrose Erythose Erythrulose
5 Pentose Ribose, Xylose, Ribulose
Arabinose
6 Hexose Glucose, Galactose Fructose

7 Heptose Sedoheptulose
8 Octose Glycero-manno—octul
ose
9 Nonose Sialic Acid
 TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES
• REDUCTION OF FEHLING’S SOLUTION
• MOLISCH TEST
• OSAZONE FORMATION
• RESORCINOL TEST FOR KETONES
(SELIVANOFF’S TEST)
• TEST FOR PENTOSES
• KELLER-KILIANI TEST FOR
DEOXYSUGARS
• FURFURAL TEST
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Simple sugar
• Only one sugar unit
• Cannot yield another sugar unit upon
HYDROLYSIS
• DIOSE- Most simple form of
monosaccharide, which does not occur
free in nature
# of Name Description Example
Carb
on
Atom
s
2 Diose Simplest monosaccharide; does Hydroxyacetaldehyde
not occur free in nature
3 Triose Usually exist in the form of Dihydroxyacetone and
phosphate esters glyceraldehyde
4 Tetros Also not found in the free state Erythrose/ Threose
e
5 Pento Very common in plants and are Arabinose, xylose, ribose
se the products of hydrolysis of *occur free in nature
polysaccharides like
hemicelluloses, mucilages and
gums
6 Hexos Most important Glucose, fructose, and
e monosaccharide found in galactose * occur free in
plants; are the first detectable nature
sugars synthesized by plants
and form the units from which
 Monosacharides
# of Carbon Name Description Example
Atoms
2 Diose Simplest monosaccharide Hydroxyactaldehyde

3 Triose Usually exist in the form of Dihydroxyacetone and

phosphate esters glyceraldehyde

4 Tetrose Erythrose/ Threose

5 Pentose Arabinose, xylose, ribose
*occur free in nature

6 Hexose Most important Glucose, fructose, and

monosaccharide found in galactose * occur free in
plants nature

7 Heptose Sedoheptose
8 Octulose D-glycero-D-manno
–octulose
Hexoses

• Most important monosaccharide

found in plants
And are abundantly available
carbohydrates of plant kingdom

Aldoses: Glucose, mannose,

galactose
Ketoses: Fructose, sorbose
 GLUCOSE

• Aldohexose
• Aldehyde group is
present in C1
• Reducing sugar is
determine by Benedict’s
test
• Occur as: Linear and
Cyclic
STRUCTURE
 DEXTROSE
• (D-glucose; alpha-D-Glucose); blood
sugar, physiologic sugar, grape sugar,
corn sugar
• Obtained by controlled enzymatic
hydrolysis of starch
• Use: nutrient, flavoring agent
• Route: PO, SC, IV or Enema
 Uses of Dextrose
◼ PARENTERAL- rigorously purified
nutrient
◼ PHARMACEUTICAL NECESSITY- less
rigorous purification
Liquid Glucose
syrupy liquid, almost colourless and taste sweet;
sweetening agent
From incomplete hydrolysis of starch

Dextrose excipient
crystalline sweetening agent
 Preparations available
• Calcium gluconate- electrolyte
replenisher
• Calcium glucephate- source of calcium
• Ferrous gluconate- hematinic; for IDA
 FRUCTOSE
• A ketohexose
• Ketone group is present in carbon 2
• Usually obtained by the inversion of
aqueous solutions of sucrose and
subsequent separation of fructose
from glucose and also, it can be
obtained by the hydrolysis of inulin
• Also known as Levulose, the
sweetest monosaccharide
• Fruit sugar; sweet fruits and honey
• Reducing sugar
FRUCTOSE
Fructose: cyclic form
 USES OF FRUCTOSE
• Food for diabetic patients
• Ingredient in infant feeding formula
• Ingredient in fructose injection, and
fructose in NaCl injection, wherein it is
used as nutrient and electrolyte
replenisher.
 GALACTOSE
• Found in milk
• Component of neurons and fibers
(galactoside)
• Test: Mucic acid test
EPIMERS
Compounds having the
same chemical formula
but differ in the spatial
arrangement around a
single carbon atom.
 PENTOSES
• Five carbon atom sugar
• Occur commonly in nature
• Product of hydrolysis of Pentosan (Xylan)
 Xylose
• Wood sugar
• Obtained from boiling corn cobs, and
straw with dilute HCl to hydrolyze the
xylan polymer.
• Diagnostic aid in intestinal
malabsorption. Due to the reason that it
is absorbed in the small intestine but
does not undergo metabolism. The
excretion of xylose in the urine is
indicative of intestinal malabsorption
DISACCHARIDES

Composed of 2
monosaccharide units
Formed via dehydration
synthesis
 Disaccharides
• Sucrose
• Maltose
• Lactose
• Trehalose
 SUCROSE
• Composed of Fructose and Glucose
• Only disaccharide that occurs in the free
state in plants
• Upon hydrolysis yields an invert sugar
• Non-Reducing Sugar
• Obtained from
– Sugar Cane- Saccharum officinarum
– Sugar beets- Beta vulgaris
– Sugar maple- Acer saccharum
 USES OF SUCROSE
• Demulcent
• Sweetening agent
• Coating agent
• Preservative
• Production of syrup
 Preparation of sucrose from sugar
cane
• The juice is obtained from sugar cane by
crushing the stems between a series of
heavy iron rollers.
• It is the boiled with lime to neutralize the
plant acids (changing sucrose to invert
sugar, and to coagulate albumins). The
latter will rise on top as SCUM and are
removed.
• The juice is filtered, sometimes decolorized
with SULFUR DIOXIDE, Concentrated and
crystalized. When crystals of sugar are no
longer obtainable, the residual, dark
colored syrup is MOLASSES.
 Preparation from sugar beet
• The beet are drug, washed and sliced
into small, limp slivers known as
COSSETTES
• Sucrose and other soluble constituents
are extracted from the plant material
with hot water
• The crude-sugar containing solution is
then subjected to the purification
process.
 MALTOSE
• Produced during the
germination of barley
• Glucose + Glucose
• Reducing sugar
• Malt sugar
• Alpha 1-4 Glycosidic
linkage
 LACTOSE
• Milk sugar; obtained from cow’s
milk Bos taurus Fam. Bovidae
• Glucose + Galactose
• Reducing sugar
• The sugar is crystalized from the
whey obtained in the
manufacture of cheese.
Uses:
-Lactose is used as tablet diluent.
- Used as nutrient in infant’s food
 Preparation of Lactose
• When milk is allowed to stand a few hours,
the fat globules (cream*) rise to the top).
Each is surrounded by an albuminous layer
• When churned, the fat globules unite to
form butter, leaving a liquid known as
buttermilk.
• The milk left after separation of cream* is
known as skimmed milk, which if treated
with rennin, forms a coagulum. Upon
proper treatment, this coagulum is made
into cheese. The liquid separated from the
coagulum is known as Whey and contains
LACTOSE and inorganic salts.
 PREPARATION OF MILK
• Condensed milk – prepared by partial
evaporation of milk in a vacuum and
consequent sterilization in hermetically
sealed containers by autoclaving.

• Malted milk – prepared by evaporating

milk with an extract of malt
 LACTULOSE
• A semisynthetic sugar, formed by Alkaline
rearrangement of lactose.
• Yields fructose and galactose upon
hydrolysis
• Converted to lactic acid and acetic acid
which causes irritation of the intestines and
subsequent catharsis 10g-20g
• it is effective in Chronic Constipation, and is
to decrease the blood ammonia
concentration in portal-systemic
encepalopathy. 3-4x a day.
 TREHALOSE
• 2 Glucose unit
– From ergot and yeast
– Alpha 1-1-glycosidic bond
– Non-reducing sugar
 Products of oxidative metabolism
• Certain important pharmaceutical
products, such as ethanol and citric acid,
are produced by the cellular respiration
of carbohydrates.
• Cherry juice
• Plant acids
• Alcohol
 Products of oxidative metabolism
• Cherry juice
– Ripe fruit of Prunus cerasus
– Contains pectin and malic
acid
– Cherry syrup
 Products of oxidative metabolism
• Plant acids
– Uses
• Acidulants in effervescent formulations
• Component of buffer systems
 Products of oxidative metabolism

• Citric acid – isolated by Scheele from lemon

juice in 1784
- appears as colorless, odorless
translucent crystals and is readily soluble in
water and alcohol
 Products of oxidative metabolism
• Lactic acid - acidulant in infant feeding
formula.
- obtained by the lactic fermentation
of sugars or synthetic manipulation.
- Na Lactate injection- electrolyte
replenisher and is used in the
treatment of metabolic acidosis
 Products of oxidative metabolism
• Tartaric acid - is a dicarboxylic acid, by
product of wine industry
- it is soluble in water and freely
soluble in alcohol
- it is used as a substitute for
citric acid in buffer systems and in
effervescent formulations
 Alcohol or Ethanol
• 95% ethanol by volume @ 15.56C
• Product of fermentation
• Undergo the process of distillation to
concentrate the alcohol content to 40-55%
– Brandy – Wine
– Whiskey – Malted Grain
– Rum - Molasses
 Products of Reductive Metabolism
• Mannitol
• Sorbitol
 Mannitol
• from manna, Fraxinus
ornus Oleaceae
• osmotic diuretic and
osmotic laxative
• Is a white, crystalline
powder that is
odourless and sweet
tasting
• It is not absorbed in
the GIT
 Sorbitol
• from the berries of
mountain ash,
Sorbus aucuparia,
Rosaceae
• aka D-glucitol
• taste half as sweet
as sucrose
• manufacture of
toothpastes and
chewing gums
 Oligosaccharides
• Trisaccharides
– Maltotriose > 3 glucose units
– Gentianose > 2 glucose, 1 fructose
– Raffinose > 1 glucose, 1 fructose, 1
galactose
 Oligosaccharides
Tetrasaccharides
• Stachyose > 1glucose, 1fructose, 2 galactose
 Polysaccharides
• Several glucose units (> 10 sugar units)
– Functions: storage and structure
– Classified into homoglycan and heteroglycan
HOMOGLYCAN HETEROGLYCAN

Starch Gum

Glycogen Mucilage

Cellulose

Inulin
 Polysaccharides
HOMOGLYCAN HETEROGLYCAN

Starch Gum

Glycogen Mucilage

Cellulose

Inulin
 Polysaccharide
• Homoglycan
– Aka homopolysaccharides (only one type of
sugar)
• Inulin > Fructosan
• Starch & Glycogen > glucosan
 Homoglycan
• Starch
– Temporary storage form of
photosynthetic products in plants
– It is produced in large quantities in green
leaves.
– It constitute 50%-65% of dry weight of
cereal seeds and as much as 80% of dry
matter of dry matter of potato tubers
– Sources
• Corn Zea mays
• Potato tubers Solanum tuberosum
• Wheat Triticum aestivum
• Tapioca
 Chemistry of starch
it is generally a mixture of two structurally different
polysaccharides. One component, termed as
amylose, is a linear molecule composed of 250-300
D-glucopyransose units uniformly linked by α-1,4
glucosidic bonds, which tend to cause the molecule
to assume helix like shape. The second component,
amylopectin, consists of 1000 or more glucose units
that are also α-1,4 linkages. However, a number of
α-1,6 links also occur at branch. Because of these
differences, amylose is more soluble with water.
Chemistry of starch
• α-Amylase(α-1,4 glucan
4-glucano-hydrolase), an enzyme present in
pancreatic juice and saliva, hydrolyzes starch by a
random splitting of α-1,4 glucosidic linkages. It
gives rise to a mixture of glucose, maltose and
amylopectin, a mixture of branched and
unbranched oligosaccharides containing α-1,6
bonds
– LINEAR
• Β-Amylase (α-1,4 glucan maltohrdolase),
produces its effect by removing maltose units from
the non-reducing ends of polysaccharide molecule
– BRANCHED
 Homoglycan
• Starch
• Pregelatinized starch- mechanically or chemically
process to rupture all part of granules in the presence
of water
• Sodium starch glycolate- a semisynthetic material, is
the sodium salt of a carboxymethyl ether of starch.
Used as a tablet disintegrant
• Hetastarch- semisynthetic material used as plasma
expander @ 6% concentration. It is adjunct therapy in
treatment of shock caused by hemorrhage, burns,
surgery, sepsis, or other trauma. Prescription Product
Hespan r.
 Homoglycan
• Glycogen/animal starch
– Storage form of carbohydrates in animals
– Iodine test: wine red
– More highly branched than starch
• Branch every 10 units (amylopectin 25-30 units)
 Homoglycan
• Inulin / hydrous inulin
– It is obtained from the subterranean organs of
members of the family Compositae. It is
particularly abundant in taxaxacum, inula
(elecampane), lappa (burdock root), echinacea
(cone flower), and chicory ( succory or blue
dandelion root).
– Polymer fructose
– Use: culture media, measure renal glomerular
filtration the usual dose is 10g dissolved in
100ml of NaCl injection by IV infusion.
 Homoglycan
• Cellulose
– Component of PLANT CELL WALL
– Purified cotton: is the hair of the seed. That
is freed from adhering impurities, deprived
of fatty matter, bleached and sterilized in its
final container.
– Not digested by mamalian enzyme system
due to their lack of cellulase
– Source: cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
– Uses : surgical dressing: serves as
a mechanical protection to absorb
blood, mucus, or pus and to keep
bacteria from infecting wounds.
•Commercially it is employed for
textiles and is a source of pure
cellulose in the manufacture of
explosives, cellulose acetate and
other materials.
 Cellulose
– Powdered cellulose- is purified,
mechanically disintegrated cellulose
prepared by processing α-cellulose
obtained as a pulp from fibrous plant
materials. It exist in various grades
and exhibits degrees of fineness
ranging from free flowing dense to
coarse, fluffy, non-flowing material. It
is used as a self binding tablet diluent
and disintegrant
 Cellulose derivative
• Microcrystalline cellulose
• Powdered cellulose
• Purified rayon
• Methyl cellulose
• Ethylcellulose
• Hydroxyethylcellulose
• Hydroxypropylcellulose
• Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose
• Pyroxylin
• Sodium Carboxymethylcelllulose
• Cellulose acetate phthalate
 Cellulose
• Microcrystalline cellulose- is a
purified, partially
depolymerized cellulose
prepared by treating
α-cellulose, obtained as a pulp
from fibrous plant material, with
mineral acids. Use as a diluent
in tablet production
 Cellulose

•Purified rayon- is a
fibrous form of bleached,
regenerated cellulose. It is
used as a surgical aid and
may not contain more
than 1.25% of titanium
dioxide.
 Cellulose derivatives
• Methylcellulose- a methyl ether of cellulose
containing 27.5% - 31.5% of methoxy groups.
In water, methylcellulose swells to produce
opalescent, viscous, colloidal suspension. It is
employed as a bulk laxative and as a
suspending agent. The usual cathartic dose is
1g- 1.5g with water 2 to 4 times a day.
Ophthalmic solutions (0.5% and 1.0%;
methopto forte and murocel) of
methylcellulose are used as topical
protectants; these products are marketed as
artificial tears or contact lens solutions.
 Cellulose derivatives

• Erhylcellulose- is an ethyl
ether of cellulose containing
not 44%-51% of ethoxy
groups. It is free-flowing
white powder. Ethylcellulose
is a tablet binder and film
coating.
 Cellulose derivatives
• Hydroxyethylcellulose- is a
hydroxy-ethyl ether of cellulose.
It is available in varying degrees
of substitution and is used as a
thickening agent and as an
ingredient in some formulations
for artificial tears.
(adsorbotears, lyteers, and
 Cellulose derivatives
• Hydroxypropylcellulose- is a
hydroxy propyl ether of
cellulose. It contains 80.5% of
the hydroxypropyl groups. It is
used as a stabilizer and
thickener in liquid preparations
and as a binder and film coating
in tablet formulations.
 Cellulose derivatives
• Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose- is the
propylene glycol ether of
methylcellulose in which both
hydroxypropyl and methyl groups are
attached to the anhydroglucose rings of
cellulose by ether linkages. It occurs as a
white fibrous or granular powder. It is
used as a suspending agent, thickening
agent, and a tablet excipient
 Cellulose derivatives
• Pyroxylin or soluble guncotton –
is a product obtained by the action
of a mixture of Nitric acid and
Sulfuric acids on cotton. It is a
mixture of cellulose nitrates. It is
pharmaceutical aid used in the
preparation of collodion and
flexible collodion, topical
protectants.
• Soluble guncotton (pyroxylin)
– Action of HNO3 and H2SO4 on
cotton
– Pyroxylin + ROH + Ether (1:3) =
collodion
– Collodion + Camphor (2%) +
castor oil (3%) > Flexible collodion
(topical protectant)
 Cellulose derivatives
• Cellulose acetate phtalate- is a
reaction product of phthalic
anhydride and a partial acetate
ester of cellulose. It contains
19%-23.5% of acetate groups and
30%-36% of phthalyl groups it is a
free flowing, white powder and is
used for enteric coating of tablets.
 Cellulose derivatives
• Na carboxymethylcellulose- is the
sodium salt of a polycarboxymethyl
ether of cellulose. It is a hygroscopic
powder that is used as a suspending
agent, a thickening agent, and a tablet
excipient and a bulk laxative. It is also
used in varying proportions with micro
crystalline cellulose to give suspending
agents with different viscosities. The
usual cathartic dose is 1.5g with water
Absorbent guncotton- other name of
purified cotton.
Gossypium-the ancient name for the
cotton plant.
 Carbohydrates
• Heteroglycan: contains different types of
Sugar
– GUMS: Natural plant hydrocolloids
– MUCILAGE: gum dispersed in water
 Gums
gums are natural plant hydrocolloids that may be
classified as anionic /non-ionic polysaccharides or
salts of polysaccharides. They are translucent,
amorphous substances that are frequently
produced in higher plants as a protective after
injury. Useful hydrocolloids are also contained in
some embryos or other plant parts. Gums are
typically heterogenous in composition. Upon
hydrolysis, arabinose, galactose, glucose,
mannose, xylose and various uronic acids are the
most frequently observe components.
Gums find diverse applications
in pharmacy. They are
ingredients in dental and
other adhesives and in bulk
laxatives. They are also useful
as tablet binders, emulsifiers,
gelling agents, suspending
agents, stabilizers and
thickeners.
 Sources of Gums
• Tree/shrub exudates
• Marine
• Seed
• Microbial
• Plant extract
 Shrub and Tree Exudates
• Tragacanth/ Gum
Tragacanth
– Exudate from Astragalus
gummifer. Family :
Leguminsae

Found in Turkey, Syria, Iran,

iraq and USSR.
Two important varieties
Persian tragacanth and
Smyranaor anatolian
When the plant is injured, the cell walls of pith and
then of medullary rays are gradually transformed into
gums. The gum absorbs water and creates internal
pressure within the stem, thus forcing it to the
surface through the incision that caused the injury.
When the gum strikes the air, it gradually hardens
owing to the evaporation of the water.
• Forms:
– Vermiform: worm like, natural injuries, twisted into coils
– Tragacanth sorts: natural injuries, irregular, tear-like
– Ribbon/flake gum: man-made incision; longitudinal
striation
Tragacanth contains bassorin (60-70%), a
complex of polymethoxylated acids, which
swells in water but does not dissolve.
It also contains tragacanthin, which is
probably demethyloxylated bassorin,
composes about 30% of the gum and is more
water soluble component.

Tragacanth gum is composed mainly of

sugar and uronic acid units.
 Use of trgacanth
– Use: suspending agent for insoluble
powders in mixtures, Emulsifying agent for
oils and resins and as an adhesives. It is
employed in cosmetics as a demulcent and
an emollient and in cloth printing,
confectionary and other processes.
•Acacia/Gum arabica
–Exudate from Acacia
senegal
 Acacia principally consists arabin,
which is a complex mixture of Ca, Mg,
and K salts of arabic acids. Arabic acid is
a branched polysaccharide that yields
L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucoronic
acid and L-rhamnose on hydrolysis.
Acacia contains 12-15% of water and
several occluded enzymes (oxidase,
peroxidase, and pectinases) that can
cause problem in some formulations.
–Use: suspending agent @ 36%
It possesses useful demulcent and
emolient properties and finds
application as an adhesive and
binder in tablet granulations.

- GUM ACACIA SOLUTION

• It remains in solutions at alcohol
concentrations below 60%, a
property that is useful in some drug
formulations. Solutions of acacia
have low viscosity and good stability
over the pH range of 2-10. These
properties contribute to the gum’s
use as an excellent emulsifying
agent.
 Ghatti gum/ indian gum
– Exudate from Anogeissius latifolia
– Substitute for acacia
 Karaya gum/ sterculia Gum
– Exudate from Sterculia
urens/villosa/tragacantha
– Obnoxios odor
– Bulk laxative
– Emulsifier, Thickener and
stabilizer
– Dental adhesive- reduce bacterial
adhesion by 98%
 Marine gums
• Sodium alginate / algin
– Is the purified carbohydrate product
extracted from brown seaweeds by the
use of alkali. It is from Macrocystis pyrifera
(Turn). It is chiefly consisted of the sodium
salt of alginic acid( composed of Reduced
mannuronic acid and glucoronic acid)
Manuronic acid is the major component
(causes swelling), but there is some
variation with algal source.
–This gum appears as nearly
odorless and tasteless coarse or
fine powder and is yellowish
white in color. It is readily soluble
in water, forming a viscous,
colloidal solution. It is insoluble
in alcohol, ether, chloroform,
and strong acid.
Sodium alginate is a suspending
agent. It is also used in the food
industry (ice cream, chocolate milk,
salad dressings, icings, and
confectionary), for suspending
cosmetic, as a sizing, and for other
industrial processes. Algin is
metabolized by the body and has a
caloric value of approximately 1.4
calories per g. it is also used as a
Calcium alginate has found
application for a number of
gelation purposes, including the
formation of a firm gel for
preparing dental impressions.
• Agar
Is the dried, hydrophilic, colloidal substance extracted
from Gelidium cartilagineum
Agar is sometimes referred to as Japanese isinglass.
agar usually occurs as bundles consisting of thin,
membranous, agglutinated strips or in cut, flaked or
granulated forms.
Agar is predominantly the calcium salt of strongly
ionized, acidic polysaccharides.
– Japanesse isinglass- Gelidium cartilagineum
– Components:
• Agarose- low sulfate content
• Agaropectin- high sulfate content
 Agar is used as suspending
agent, an emulsifier, a gelating
agent for suppositories and
surgical lubricant and a tablet
excipient and disintegrant. It is
extensively used as a gel in
bacteriologic culture media and as
an aid in food processing and
other industrial processes.
 Agarose finds special
application in clinical
diagnostics. It is used as a
matrix in immunodiffusion, for
electrphoretic separation of
globulin and other proteins,
and for techniques involving
gel filtration and gel
chromatography.
• Carrageenan
– Is a term referring to closely
related hydrocolloids that are
obtained from various red algae
or seaweeds. Gigartina
mammilosa / chondrus crispus)
– Agardh are the major sources of
carrageenan; these algae are
commonly known as Chondrus or
Irish moss extract
• The carrageenan hydrocolloids are
galactans with sulfate esters and
physically resemble agar. The
carrageenans differ chemically from
agar because they have a higher sulfate
ester content.
– Carrageenans can be separated into
several components; Forms
• Kappa-carrageenan and iota carrageenan –
gelling property; suspending agent
• Lambda – non gelling property; thickening
agent
• Danish agar / furcellaran
– From red algae Furcellaria fastigiata
– Similar property to kappa-carrageenan;
same use
 Seed Gum
• Plantago seed/ psyllium
seed/plantain seed
– Is a cleaned, dried, ripe seed of Plantago
psyllium / plantago Indica: Spanish or
French psyllium
– Plantago ovata: Blonde psyllium or indian
plantago seed
– Plantago is from the latin and means sole of
foot, referring to the shape of leaf; Psyllium
is from the greek and means flea, referring
to the color, size, and shape of the seed.
 The hydrocolloid material can be
separated into acidic and neutral
polysaccharide fractions, and upon
hydrolysis yields, L-arabinose, D-galactose,
D-galacturonic acid, L-rhamnose, and
D-Xylose are obtained.
plantago seed is a cathartic. Its action is
caused by the swelling of the mucilagenous
seed coat, thus giving bulk and lubrication.
The seeds should be taken with
considerable amount of water. The usual
dose is 7.5g
• Cydonium or quince seed
– Cydonium is the ripe seed of Cydonia
vulgaris.
– These seeds posses a mucilagenous
epithelium equivalent to approximately
20% of their weight.
– These mucilage is composed of cellulose
suspended in a more soluble
polysaccharide that yields L-arabinose
and a mixture of aldobiouronic acids.
• Guar gum / guaran
– Is the powdered endosperm of the seed of
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus.
– The gum hydrates in cold water and is stable
in acidic formulations.
– Guar gum is used as a bulk-forming laxative
and as a thickening agent, a tablet binder,
and a disintegrator in the pharmaceuticals.
– The food processing and paper industries are
large users of this gum.
– Plant part use: Endosperm
– Products: GentlazR, GuarsolR
• Locust bean
– Aka St. John’s Bread / Carob Pulp
– Is the hydrocolloid-containing
powdered endosperm of the seed of
Ceratonia siliqua
– Locust bean gum is a galactomannan
and similar to guar gum. The
structural distinction is locust bean
gum’s lesser frequency of galactose
substituents on the linear mannose
chain of the locust bean polymer
–Locust bean gum can be used in
pharmaceuticals as a thickener
and stabilizer and in other
manufacturing processes where a
hydrocolloid is indicated.
 Microbial gum
• Xanthan gum
– Is a high-molecular weight microbial gum
prepared by the action of Xanthomonas
campestris on suitable carbohydrates.
– The exocellular gum is recovered from the
fermentationbroth by precipitation with isopropyl
alcohol.
– Xanthan gum is marketed as the Na, K, or Ca
– The main component of xanthan gum is a
branched, partially acetylated
polysaccharidecontaining D-glucose, D-glucoronic
 The gum dissolves in hot and cold water to
give high viscousity solutions, and it has good
compatibility with a wide range of salts. The
the viscosity is independent of temperature
between 10-7-C.
Xanthan gum is used in pharmaceuticals for
its excellent emulsifying and suspending
properties. The pseudoplastic properties of
this gum enable toothpastes and ointments
both to hold their shape and to spread readily.
• Dextran
– Polyglucan formed from sucrose by the action of
a transglucosylase enzyme present in
Leuconostoc mesenteroides
– Dextran preparations are well-suited for their
intended uses because their osmolarity and
viscosity resemble of those of plasma.
– Dextran may also interfere with some laboratory
tests and may significantly increase clotting time.
– Use: Plasma expander @6% in cases of shock
caused by hemorrhage, trauma, or severe burns.
Low MW dextran @ 10% is empl0yed in the
treatment of shock
 Plant extract
• Pectin
– Product of partial acid hydrolysis of the inner portion of
the rind of citrus fruits and apple pomace
– Constituent: Galacturonic acid (swelling
property)
– 3 forms ( depending on the developmental
stage)
• Protopectin- unripe fruits
• Soluble pectin- just ripe
• Pectic acid- overripe fruits
 Pectin is classified as a protectant and a
suspending agent and is an ingredient in many
antidiarrheal formulations. As a colloidal
solution, it has the property of conjugating
toxins and enhancing the physiologic functions
of the digestive tract through its physical and
chemical properties. The efficacy of pectin in the
gastrointestinal tract is largely owing to this its
colloidal action.

PP: amogelR, diabismulR, polymagmaR,

 Other Carbohydrate
Honey Apis mellifera Mild laxative,
bactericidal,
antiseptic
Tamarind Tamarindus Maleic acid
indica and Tartaric
acid:
Laxative
Chitin Chitosan
 Carbohydrate related
compounds
• Product of Reductive Metabolism of
Sugars
– Mannitol
• Reduction of mannose / from manna (Fraxinus
ornus)
• Use: laxative; diagnostic aid and osmotic diuretic
• Mannitol is not absorbed in the gastrointestinal
tract
• Diagnostic dose of mannitol: 200mg/kg of body
weight in a 15%-25% solution administered
intravenously
• Diuretic dose: 50 to 100 grams daily in 5% to 25
• Sorbitol / D-glucitol
– Ripe berries (sorbus aucuparia)
– Reduction / hydrogenation of glucose
– Taste half as sweet as sucrose
– Uses: humectant, useful in toothpastes,
chewing gums and osmotic laxative
 Plant acids
• Citric acid
– Isolated from lemon juice Citrus limon by scheele
– Use: acidulant in effervescent preparations;
buffering agent
• Lactic acid
– Acidulant in infant feeding formula
• Tartaric acid
– By-product of wine industry
– Substitute for citric acid in buffers
• Oxalic acid
– Form insoluble crystals ( raphides) of calcium
oxalate
 `

End
☺