CARBOHYDRATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS

Carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates [Cx(H2O)Y] are usually defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes and
ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxyaldehydes and ketones.
 Carbohydrates means “Hydrates of Carbon”.
 Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy alcoholic compounds with at least 3 carbon atoms
with potentially active carbonyl group which may either be an aldehyde or ketone
group. Simple carbohydrates (saccharides) and the ending of the names of most
sugars is –ose.
E.g.
 Glucose
 Fructose
 Sucrose
 Maltose
INTRODUCTION
 It is the 1st product of photosynthesis.
 In the form of starch is the reserved product in plants while in animals its
glycogen.
 They are source of energy and provide structural and skeletal support.
 They acts as precursor for proteins and fats and many of secondary metabolites
like alkaloids, glycosides etc.
 Carbohydrates are used as excipients in pharmaceutical industry e.g. glucose,
liquid glucose and sucrose are used sweetening agent for making syrup.
 Sucrose is also used for making sugar coated tablets.
 Starch is used as binder and disinterant.
 Lactose is used as diluent.
INTRODUCTION

 CMC is used as thickening agent or suspending agent in suspensions.

 Gums are used as tablet binder, suspending agent and emulsifying agent.
 Mannitol (reduce form of mannose) is used as osmotic diuretic.It is used to
reduce intracranial pressure.
 Inulin is used for the diagnosis or evaluation of renal function.
 INTRODUCTION

Occurrence:
 Carbohydrates are widely distributed in plants and animals and also found in
green plants by the process of Photosynthesis.
 This process occurs with the presence of Chlorophyll Pigment.
 These carbohydrates utilized by the animals in the form of food.
 Well known carbohydrates are Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), Sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁),
Starch (C₆H₁₀O₅) & Cellulose (C₆H₁₀O₅)n
 Used by human beings & animals.
 Animals can synthesize Carbohydrates from Fat& protein.
CLASSIFICATION

Carbohydrates are classified into two broad groups

1) Sugars
2) Polysaccharides
Sugars: Sugars are generally soluble in water and form sweet solution.
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are generally insoluble in water and form
tasteless solution.
CLASSIFICATION
Sugars: Sugars are further classified as
a) Monosaccharide
b) Disaccharides
c) Oligosaccharides
Monosaccharides:
 are simplest of all the sugars.
 They are low molecular mass carbohydrates.
 They cannot be further hydrolysed into smaller units.
 They are sweet in taste and soluble in water.
 They are either aldoses (having aldehyde group) or ketoses (having ketone group).
 They are major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as energy source and
biosynthesis.
 Monosaccharides are subdivided as
No. of carbon Generic name Example of Example of
atoms present Aldoses Ketoses

3 Trioses Glyceraldehyd Dihydroxyacet

e one
4 Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose
5 Pentoses Ribose Ribulose
6 Hexoses Glucose Fructose
7 Heptoses Glucoheptone Sudoheptulose
DISACCHARIDES
 They are carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis yield 2 molecules of
monosaccharides.
 They are sweet in taste and less soluble in water.
 They are mostly found in living organisms.
Examples
a) Sucrose : Sucrose is most commonly occurring disaccharide in plants; which
upon hydrolysis yields invert sugar, which contain equal quantities of glucose
and fructose.
b) Maltose : Although rarely occur in free form but it is produced in large
quantities upon hydrolysis of starch, upon hydrolysis yield 2 glucose.
c) Other disaccharides include lactose, suphorose, trehalose etc
d) linked by beta 1-4 linkage, beta 1-2 linkage, alpha 1-1 linkages respectively.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 They contain from 2-10 sugar monomers linked by various alpha and beta bonds
(Glycosidic linkages) and include various di, tri, tetra saccharides .
 Examples
 Maltotriose has 3 glucose molecules
 Dextrins has 8 glucose molecules
POLYSACCHARIDES
 They contain more than 10 sugars linked by various linkages similar to
oligosaccharide
 They are tasteless and insoluble in water.
 They act as a fuel and structural component of cell
 The structural difference of these compounds is due to many different sugars and
sugar derivatives e.g; Uronic acids.
POLYSACCHARIDES

They are of two types

a) Homopolysaccharides
b) Heteropolysaccharides
Homopolysaccharides:
These are the polysaccharides which upon hydrolysis yield only one type of
monosaccharides subunits, e.g. Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen.
Heteropolysaccharides:
These are the polysaccharides which upon hydrolysis yield more than one type of
monosaccharides subunits, e.g. Gums, Agar, Mucopolysaccharides, Mucilages,
Hemicellulose.
TESTS FOR IDENTIFICATION
1. Reduction of Fehling’s solution:
Take 1-2 ml of heated solution of substance and treated it with equal amount of
Fehling’s solution A & B. Brick red ppt. of cuprous oxide are produced. Reducing
sugars are oxidized by copper ions, the presence of red precipitates indicated that
saccharides has reduced the cu++ ions.
All reducing sugars give this test like Monosaccharides (lactose & maltose)
2. Molisch Test: Take 1-2 ml of heated solution of the substance and treated it with
Molisch reagent (α-naphthol). Then add 1-2 drops of conc. H2SO4 along the wall of
test tube. It give purple colour ring at the junction of 2 reagents. In Molisch test,
Conc H2SO4 acts as dehydrating acid. This acid dehydrates all carbohydrates and
converts pentoses into Furfural and hexoses into Hydroxy methylfurfural.This
product condense with α-naphthol to yield a purple color.
TESTS FOR IDENTIFICATION
3. Osazone Test: Osazone are sugar derivative formed by heating a sugar solution
with Phenylhydrazine Hcl, Sodium acetate and Acetic acid which gives yellow
crystals which are observed under microscope. These crystals are characteristics for
certain sugars to be identified, e.g. Glucose, Galactose, Lactose and Maltose form
osazone crystals. Phenylhydrazine condense with each molecule of sugar to produce
solid derivative called Osazone.
4. Selivanoff ‘s or Resorcinol Test For Ketones: A crystals of resorcinol is added to
the solution of sugar and warmed on a water bath with equal volume of conc. HCl.
Pink rose colour appear which indicate the presence of ketoses, e.g. fructose, honey
or hydrolysed inulin. HCl as dehydrating agent and Resorsinol is condensation
reagent.
 TESTS FOR IDENTIFICATION
5. Test For Pentoses: Solution of the substance is heated with equal volume of
HCl containing a little Phloroglucinol. Red colour produced which indicate the
presence of pentoses.
6. Iodine Test: Starch consists of amylose and amylopectin. Iodine is added in the
sugar solution, it incorporate into the layers having bonds. Blue colour appear
indicate the presence of sugar (CHO).
 SUCROSE & SUCROSE CONTAINING DRUGS
SUCROSE: It is disaccharide containing alpha D-glucose and beta D-fructose
linked by alpha 1-2 linkage. It is also called Saccharin or Table sugar or Simple
sugar.
Botanical Origin
1. Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane)
2. Beta vulgaris (sugar beet)
Family:
1. Graminae
2. Chenopodiaceae
SUCROSE

Habitat: Sugar cane is native in India and cultivated in cuba,Philippine,

Indonesia, and Lausanne.
Sugar beet is produced in Germany, Austria, France Russia and U.S.
Production
A. Sugar cane
1. Crushing: Stem—crushed between heavy iron rollers ---juice
2. Boiling: Neutralized and remove impurities by boiling with lime water
Ca(OH)2 (to avoid acid hydrolysis of sucrose and to coagulate albumin on top as
scum and removed).
3. Filtration:
Filter the juice and concentrated it
4. Decolourizing:
Decolorize it by adding sulphur dioxide (SO2) 5. Crystallization Now crystalize it.
6. Molasses: When no more crystals are obtained, then they are separated. Thick
syrupy residue is formed, it is named as Molasses and this molasses is used as
animal Food and preparation of Ethyl Alcohol.
B. Sugar Beet

 Beets are dug out, washed and cut into small slices called Cassette.
 Sucrose and other constituents are extracted from plant with hot or boiling
water.
 Crude sucrose is obtained is then subjected to purification process.
 It is also known as table sugar.
Uses:

 Vehicle for syrup

 Nutrient
 Demulcent
 Preservative and bacteriostatic in conc. form
 To mask bitter taste
 Retard the oxidation of certain preparations
 Starting material for invert sugar
 Pharmaceutical aid
DEXTROSE
 It is α-D-glucopyranose or D-glucose
 Sources: Grapes and other fruits, also called grape sugar
 Production: Glucose is obtained by the hydrolysis of starch .
 Dextrose is obtained by the controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch in the presence of enzyme
hydrolysate at 45 lb pressure for 35 minutes.
 It can be purified up to 99.5-100% to yield pure crystalline dextrose and suitable for use.
 It is also obtained from naturally occurring glucosides.
DEXTROSE
 Uses: Nutrient by mouth or by enemas or by injection (I.V., S.C.).
 An ingredient in Preparatin Available:
 Dextrose injection ----Dextrose 5%
 Dextrose saline injection ----Dextrose +NaCl
 Dopamine HCl + Dextrose Injection
 Lidocaine HCl + Dextrose injection
 Kcl+dextrose injection
 Dextrose+citrate and citrate phosphate dextrose solution (anticoagulant) used for storage of
whole blood.
 Commercially it is used in the manufacture of candies, ice cream, carbonated beverages, bakery
products and canning industry.
 DEXTROSE EXCIPIENT: Excipients
 Other than active ingredients in an active material.
 Dextrose excipients is a crystalline dextrose monohydrate that has undergone less rigorous
purification.
 It is used as ingredients of pharmaceutical necessity
 Dextrates
 A purified mixture of saccharides (not less than 93% dextrose) and other saccharides are 7% is
known as Dextrates.
 They are also prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis of starch and used as agent in pharmaceutical
industries.
 Dextrates

Uses
 Sweetening agent
 Substitutes for sucrose in syrups
 As tablet binder and coating material
 In place of liquid glucose in many pharmaceutical products
 In manufacture of candies, carbonated beverages, ice-creams, bakery
products and in the canning industry
LIQUID GLUCOSE
Mixture of saccharides obtained by incomplete hydrolysis of starch.
In U.S. it is prepared from corn starch.
Constituents: Contain dextrin , maltose, dextrose, water
Production: Corn starch---washed----boiled with dilute HCl for 22 minutes at 30 lb pressure---
neutralized by NaOH/KOH----centrifuged ----filtered---clear liquid ---evaporated to syrupy
consistency.
Uses:
 Manufacturing of candy and ice-cream & candies.
 In bakery products
 As a substitute for sucrose in syrup.
 In canning industry as vehicle.
 For sweeting agent.
 As a tablet binder and coating agent
 Products of Glucose:
Calcium gluconate----for calcium deficiency
Iron-gluconate----for iron deficiency anaemia
FRUCTOSE
 It is keto sugar, monosaccharide isomer of glucose.
 Synonyms
 D-fructose
 Fructo-pyranose
 Levulose
 Fruit sugar
 Fructo-furanose
 Sources 1. By inversion of Sucrose: Glucose + fructose (by enzyme invertase)----subsequent
separation---purified----suitable for parenteral use.
 Inuline: Fructose polymer---fructose (on hydrolysis)
 Honey and sweet fruits: Fructose is a keto sugar obtained from the honey (invert sugar) and
sweet fruits.
FRUCTOSE
 Properties:
 Colourless crystals or white crystalline powder
 Odourless
 Sweet taste
 Freely soluble in water
 Structure:
FRUCTOSE
 Uses:
 As a food for diabetics (glucose substitute)
 Beneficial in diabetic acidosis
 Infant feeding formula (milk products)
 Food of interest for calories conscious individuals
 It is half sweeter than glucose
 When given parentally it causes less urination as compare to glucose.
 Fructose injection and fructose-NaCl, used as nutrient and electrolyte replenisher.
 High fructose solution: They are prepared by controlled enzymtically isomerization of glucose.
 Isomerase is obtained from bacterial Streptomyces species.
 They contain fructose upto 90%.
LACTOSE

 It is also known as cow’s milk sugar.

 It consists of D-glucose and D-galactose linked by β, 1-4 linkage.
 Zoological Origin: Bos taurus
 Family: Bovidae
 Structure:
LACTOSE

 Description of milk:
 Milk is fresh, unpasteurized or pasteurized, white liquid that is an emulsion of fat globules
suspended in solution of casein, albumin, lactose, inorganic salts and water.
 Water 80-90%
 Casein 3%
 Lactose 5%,
 Mineral salts 0.1- 1.0%
 Fat(butter) 2.5-5.0%
 Vitamin rich.
LACTOSE

Characteristics:
 It has slight but pleasant odour
 It has slightly sweet tasting powder.
 It is stable in air but absorb some odour
 It is hydrolysed by enzyme Lactase
 It reduces Fehling’s solution and also form crystals of osazone
 On fermentation gives lactic acid and butyric acid.
LACTOSE

Collection:
 When the milk is allowed to stand for few hours, fat globules rise up to the top and form
cream.
 It is surrounded by aluminous layer and after Churning process, these globules unite together to
form Butter.
 Skimmed milk: When butter is removed from the top, remaining milk is called Skimmed milk.
 Coagulum: When skimmed milk is treated with Rennin, it coagulate to form coagulum, which
is converted to cheese after proper treatment and some liquid remain.
LACTOSE
Whey: Remaining liquid is called Whey. It contains lactose and inorganic salts.
Lactose is crystallized from whey and impure crystals are dissolved in water,
decolourized with charcoal, then recrystallized it .
Uses:
 Used as nutrient.
 It is used in pharmaceutical industries as a tablet inert diluent
 A perfect diet for infants.
 It is helpful in establishing the normal flora of the intestine because it provide the
preformed substrate for lactobacilli
 Source of lactose, yogurt, kumises (fermented milk) & casein.
 In bakery lactose provide or enhancing browning and reduce sweetness
LACTULOSE

 A semi synthetic sugar prepared by alkaline rearrangement of

lactose.
 Upon hydrolysis it yields fructose and galactose.
 Structure:
LACTULOSE

Uses:
 It has poor absorption from GIT, so reaches colon unchanged---metabolized by
bacteria to lactic acid and acetic acid---accumulation of acids causes GIT
irritation produced laxative action.so useful in chronic constipation.
 It decreases the concentration of ammonia in blood (in GIT, acid traps
ammonia, converting it to ammonium ion ; while acids are converted to
acetate & lactate respectively. 25-50% concentration of ammonia is decreased
by taking 20-30% grams of lactose in 3-4 days.
XYLOSE
Synonyms:
 D-xylose Sweet
 wood sugar
Structure:
 It is pentose sugar.
Preparation:
It is obtained by boiling corn cobs, corn bran, straw & other similar materials (xylan; a
polymer of xylose) by boiling with dil. HCl which cause hydrolysis of xylan and
converted it into xylose.
XYLOSE

Characteristics
 Sweet taste sugar
 It is normally absorbed from small intestine but not metabolized by
mammalian enzymes system, so excreted as such in urine.
Uses
 FDA has approved it as diagnostic agent to evaluate intestinal absorption. The
relative excretion of xylose in the urine is indicative of intestinal
malabsorption.
 It is difficult to ferment but ferment and diagnose particular bacteria.
 It is also used to check intestinal disease
CARAMEL
It is also known as Burnt Sugar.
Preparation
 Solution of sugar (glucose or sucrose) is heated in the presence of acid or alkali.
 When it lose its sweet taste and become darkens in colour, i.e. brown. This is known
as burnt sugar.
Characteristics
 Concentrated dark brown sugar
 Bitter sweet in taste
 One part of burnt sugar in 1000 parts of water can produce yellowish orange colour
CARAMEL

 Uses
 Ice-creams
 Sweets
 Bakery products
 Puddings
 Colouring agent for certain pharmaceutical preparation.
HONEY
 Mixture of saccharine substances collected in honey comb by bees.
Botanical Origin : Apis mellifera
Family : Apidae
Characteristics:
 Thick syrupy liquid
 Density is 1.47
 Light yellow-reddish brown in colour
 Sweet in taste
 Pleasant agreeable odour
 Odour and taste depend upon the nature of flowers used in production
Chemical Constituent:

Glucose 30-40% Sucrose 0.1-10%

Fructose 40-50% Dextrin

Formic Acid Volatile Oils

Pollen Grains Enzyme (invertase)

Vitamins Proteins

Colouring Matters Amino Acids

HONEY

Habitat:
Present in England, West indies, chile, NewZeeland, California, Canada,
Australia, Pakistan and India.
Collection & Preparation:
There are three types of honey bees
 Queen bees
 Males or drones
 Under developed bees (workers)
HONEY

Workers Bees:
 Worker bees have hollow tubes (maxilla &labium) suck nectar (sugar containing juice present in
flowers; 25% aqueous solution of sucrose). Juice passes through oesophagus into honey
sacs(corps)
 Mixed with salivary secretions that contains enzyme invertase
 It convert sucrose to glucose and fructose(invert sugar)
 On returning to hives, deposit invert sugar (honey) in honey comb and sealed the comb with wax
 Smoked hive to remove bees.
HONEY
Honey comb cut & honey collected by:
 Drainage
 Expression
 Centrifuge
 It is impure form of honey
 Honey of commerce is heated at 80 o C and allow to stand. Impurities float on top & removed
 In this way we get pure honey.
Adulteration:
 By adulterant , that is artificial invert sugar ; prepared by acid hydrolysis of sucrose, this artificial sugar
contains some furfurals that gives red colour with resorcinol in HCl,
 so artificial honey can be differentiated from natural honey by this test (also by aroma).
Uses:
 Nutrient, demulcent, laxative, bactericidal.
 Ingredient of linctus’s and cough syrups.
 In the treatment of Duodenal ulcer
 Antiseptic
 As a vehicle
 Anti-diarrheal
 Kidney and renal disorder.
 Promote healing and used in arteriosclerosis in brain.
 Ingredient of cream and cosmetics, balms, lotions, soaps due to soothing effect.
 Note: Invert sugar is more sweeter than its precursor (sucrose) and tend to remain more
moist and less prone to crystallization. Invert sugar has lower water activity than Sucrose
so it provide more powerful preserving qualities.
STARCH

 It is the product formed during photosynthesis and is produced in large

quantities in green leaves where it is stored temporarily.
 It is also stored as a permanent reserve food material for the plant. It occurs in
various plant parts such as seeds, pith, medullary rays and cortex of the stems
and roots.
 It constitutes from 50-65% of the dry weight of cereal seeds and as much as
80% of the dry matter of potato tuber.
Characters
 Starch is irregular white, tasteless and odourless powder.
 It is insoluble in cold water
 It is soluble in hot water and form colloidal solution on boiling and form translucent
jelly upon cooling.
 It gives deep blue colour with iodine.
 On addition of mineral acids, rupturing of starch granules caused paste formation.
 It is derived from Latin word Sterchen means Stiffen.
 It is also called as Amylum
 Composition: It is composed of
 Amylose (25%)
 Amylopectin (75%)
Difference b/w Amylose & Amylopectin
Amylose
 It is soluble in water.
 It gives blue colour with iodine and
is easily precipitated.
 It consists of 250-300 glucose units
linked together in linear fashion
containing α-1,4 linkage.
 Enzyme amylase is used for
hydrolysis present in both plants and
animals α-Amylase cause hydrolysis
of amylose producing glucose and
maltose.
Amylopectin
 It is insoluble in water.
 It gives violet colour with iodine and
is not easily precipitated.
 It consists of more than 1000 glucose
units linked together by both α-1,4 &
α-1,6 linkage.
 Enzyme amylase is used for
hydrolysis present in both plants and
animals β-Amylase cause hydrolysis
of amylopectin producing maltose.
Source
 Commercially Starch is obtained from: corn,
wheat, rice and potato
Plants Potato Corn Wheat Rice

Botanical Solanum Zea mays Triticum Oryza sativa

origin tuberosum aestivum

Family Solanaceae Graminae Graminae Graminae

Size 10-35 µm 35 µm 20-50 µm 2-10 µm

30-100 µm 5-10 µm

shape Ovoid , spheric Polygonal, Lenticular Polygonal

Rounded Spherical
Spherical
Preparation

 1. Maize starch:
 Grains are softened by soaking in 0.2% aqueous solution of sulphurous
acid for 2-3 days that will disintegrate embryo or germ and allow the
starch freed from fibres.
 Germs are separated which are used for germ oil.(milky liquid).
 Remaining grains ground wet and fibres are separated , then glutin and
starch are separated by centrifugation, as gluten is lighter than starch ,
dried at 50-60C--- powdered.
 2. Wheat starch: Flour +water ----dough ----keep for 1 hour----shaken in
grooved roller ----liquid ---centrifuged --- washed ---dried.
 3. Rice starch: Crushed the rice are soaked in 0.4%NaoH to softened
grains then crushed + added water then filtered---allowed to stand then
decanted and washed the starch finally dried at 50-60C.
 4. Potato starch: Washed the potatoes and removed their upper layer
pulp +added water and crushed ---allowed to stand ---starch ppt.----
filtered, dried and pulverized.
Pregelatinized Starch: Starch granules are rupture mechanically or
chemically
Used as excipient for tablet.
Uses
 1. Tablet binder and disintegrant
 2. Tablet filler
 3. Nutrient
 4. Astringent
 5. Demulcent
 6. Protectant, absorbent
 7. Adsorbent
 8. Antidote for iodine poisoning.
 9. As dusting powder and Pharmaceutical excipient.
 10. Starting material for other sugars
 11. In food industry
 12. In plastic industry
DEXTRIN( Starch gum)

 It is polyglucan that is formed from sucrose (partial hydrolysis) by action of

transglucosylase enzyme system (dextran sucrase).
 It contain alpha 1-6 linkage (major) & alpha 1-2,1-4 and 1- 3 linkages (minor).
Production
 In USA it is obtained from Corn starch.
 In Europe it is obtained from Potato starch.
Properties
 Properties depend upon molecular weight (40,000-75000).
 Well suited for internal use b/c its viscosity and osmolality resembles plasma.
 Non-toxic.
 Prolonged action due to slow cleavage of alpha 1-6 linkage.
DEXTRIN( Starch gum)

Yellow Dextrin (Inferior)

 If starch is heated at 180-200 o C with steam, yellow dextrin is produced
which is of inferior quality.and contain appreciable quantity of maltose.
White Dextrin
 (high grade) If starch is heated at 110-115 o C with mineral acids, white
dextrin is obtained.white dextrin contains upto 15% soluble starch.
Uses:

 An ingredient for some infant food.

 6% solution is used as plasma expender in shocks & minor burns.
 It is used as stiffening agent and adhesive for some surgical dressing.
 It is used in paper sizing and cloth sizing.
 Industrially as a binding and thickening agents.
INULIN

Botanical Origin:
 Inulin is obtained from tubers of Helianthus tuberosum
Family: Compositae
Characters:
 Sparingly soluble in water
 Readily soluble in hot water
 No colour with iodine
 Present in cell sap
 Chemical constituents: Inulin is a polymer of fructo-furanose.
 It contains fructo-furanose ring with 30-35 units linked by β-2,1 linkage.
Preparation:
 It can be prepared by immersing roots and rhizomes in alcohol and
crystallized.
 It can also be prepared by boiling the plant material for some time and then
filtered. It is cooled to get crystals of inulin.
Uses :
 Source of fructose
 In culture media as a fermentative identifying agent for certain bacteria.
 Identify renal function.
 Diagnosis test for kidney problems.