Carbohydrates

Presenting by:Maryam zahid

What are
carbohydrates?
Types of
carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways by which our body
obtains its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they comprise carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen at their chemical level. Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include sugars,
fibers and starches. They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy
products. They are the basic food groups which play an important role in a healthy life.
The food containing carbohydrates are converted into glucose or blood sugar during the
process of digestion by the digestive system.
Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, organs and tissues. The extra
amount of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver for further requirement. The
term ‘carbohydrate’ is derived from a French term ‘hydrate de carbone‘ meaning ‘hydrate of
carbon‘. The general formula of this class of organic compounds is Cn(H2O)n.
 Simple Carbohydrates
(Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and
Oligosaccharides)
Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar

Types of
molecules. In simple carbohydrates, molecules are
digested and converted quickly resulting in a rise in
the blood sugar levels. They are abundantly found in

carbohydrates: milk products, beer, fruits, refined sugars, candies,

etc. These carbohydrates are called empty calories,
as they do not possess fiber, vitamins and minerals.

Simple and complex: Plants, being producers, synthesize glucose

(C6H12O6) using raw materials like carbon dioxide
Simple are monosaccharides. and water in the presence of sunlight. This process
Complex are oligo and of photosynthesis converts solar energy to
chemical energy. Consumers feed on plants and
polysaccharides. harvest energy stored in the bonds of the
compounds synthesized by plants.
Monosaccharides:
Monosaccharides contain just one sugar
unit, so they're the smallest of the
carbohydrates. (The prefix "mono-" means
"one.") The small size of monosaccharides
gives them a special role in digestion and
metabolism. Food carbohydrates have to be
broken down to monosaccharides before
they can be absorbed in the gastrointestinal
tract, and they also circulate in blood in
monosaccharide form.

There are 3 monosaccharides:

1. Glucose
2. Fructose
You're already familiar with glucose, because it's the
main product of photosynthesis. Plants make
glucose as a way of storing the sun's energy in a
form that it can use for growth and reproduction In
humans, glucose is one of the most important
nutrients for fueling the body. It's especially important
for the brain and nervous system.Muscles, on the
other hand, can use fat as an energy source. (In
practice, your muscles are usually using some
combination of fat and glucose for energy, which
we'll learn more about later.)
Food sources of glucose: Glucose is found in fruits
and vegetables, as well as honey, corn syrup, and
high fructose corn syrup. (All plants make glucose,
but much of the glucose is used to make starch,
fiber, and other nutrients. The foods listed here have
glucose in its monosaccharide form.)
Fructose is special because it is the
sweetest carbohydrate. Plants make a lot of
fructose as a way of attracting insects and
animals, which help plants to reproduce.
Food sources of fructose: Fruits,
vegetables, honey, high fructose corn syrup
Food sources of galactose:
Galactose is found in milk (and dairy
products made from milk), but it's
almost always linked to glucose to
form a disaccharide (more on that in a
minute). We rarely find it in our food
supply in monosaccharide form.
Disaccharides
The second type of simple carbohydrates is disaccharides. They contain two sugar
units bonded together.
There are 3 disaccharides:

1. Maltose (glucose + glucose)

2. Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
3. Lactose (glucose + galactose)
Maltose is made of two glucose molecules bonded together. It doesn't occur naturally in any
appreciable amount in foods, with one exception: sprouted grains. Grains contain a lot of
starch, which is made of long chains of glucose (more on this in a minute), and when the seed
of a grain starts to sprout, it begins to break down that starch, creating maltose. If bread is
made from those sprouted grains, that bread will have some maltose. Sprouted grain bread is
usually a little heavier and sweeter than bread made from regular flour.

Sucrose is made of a glucose molecule bonded to a fructose molecule. It's made by plants for
the same reason as fructose -- to attract animals to eat it and thereby spread the
seeds.Sucrose is naturally-occurring in fruits and vegetables. (Most fruits and vegetables
contain a mixture of glucose, fructose, and sucrose.) But humans have also figured out how to
concentrate the sucrose in plants (usually sugar cane or sugar beets) to make refined table
sugar. We also find sucrose in maple syrup and honey.

Lactose is made of a glucose molecule bonded to a galactose molecule. It is sometimes called

"milk sugar" as it is found in dairy products like milk, yogurt, and cheese. These are the only
animal foods that have significant amounts of carbohydrate. Most of our carbohydrates come
from plant foods.
Oligosaccharides:
3. Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates formed by the condensation of 2-9
monomers are called oligosaccharides. By this convention,
trioses, pentoses, hexoses are all oligosaccharides.
Complex carbohydrates
Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
Complex carbohydrates have two or more sugar molecules, hence they are referred to as
starchy foods. In complex carbohydrates, molecules are digested and converted slowly
compared to simple carbohydrates. They are abundantly found in lentils, beans, peanuts,
potatoes, peas, corn, whole-grain bread, cereals, etc.
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of a large
number of monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose,
etc. which exhibit extensive branching and are homopolymers – made up of only glucose
units.
1. Starch is composed of two components- amylose and
amylopectin. Amylose forms the linear chain and amylopectin
is a much-branched chain.
2. Glycogen is called animal starch. It has a structure similar to
starch, but has more extensive branching.
3. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate and is the main structural
component of the plant cell wall. It is a fibrous polysaccharide
with high tensile strength. In contrast to starch and glycogen,
cellulose forms a linear polymer.
Sources of carbohydrates:
1. Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many
fruits.
2. Galactose is present in all dairy products.
3. Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
4. Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed
cheese, pasta, etc.
5. Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey
containing small amounts of vitamins and minerals.
 Functions of
carbohydrates
Carbs provide your body with energy

One of the primary functions of carbohydrates is to

provide your body with energy. Your cells convert
carbohydrates into the fuel molecule ATP through a
process called cellular respiration.
They also provide stored energy

Your body can transform extra carbohydrates into

stored energy in the form of glycogen. Several
hundred grams can be stored in your liver and
muscles.
Carbohydrates help preserve muscle

During periods of starvation when carbohydrates aren’t

available, the body can convert amino acids from muscle
into glucose to provide the brain with energy. Consuming
at least some carbs can prevent muscle breakdown in this
scenario.
They promote digestive health
Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that promotes good digestive
health by reducing constipation and lowering the risk of digestive
tract diseases.

They influence heart health and diabetes:Excess

refined carbohydrates can increase the risk of heart disease and
diabetes. Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is associated with reduced
“bad” LDL cholesterol levels, a lower risk of heart disease, and
increased glycemic control.
Metabolism of carbohydrates:
Digestion of Carbohydrates

The human body breaks down complex carbohydrates into glucose and other monosaccharides.
Glucose in the blood (often referred to as “blood sugar”) is the primary energy source for the
body. Sugars provide calories, or “energy,” for the body. Each gram of sugar provides 4 calories.
Glucose can be used immediately or stored in the liver and muscles for later use.

where salivary α-amylase attacks the α-glycosidic linkages in starch, the main polycarbohydrate
ingested by humans. Cleavage of the glycosidic linkages produces a mixture of dextrins, maltose,
and glucose. The α-amylase mixed into the food remains active as the food passes through the
esophagus, but it is rapidly inactivated in the acidic environment of the stomach.
The primary site of carbohydrate digestion is the small intestine. The secretion
of α-amylase in the small intestine converts any remaining starch molecules.
Starch is then cleaved into glucose molecules. Disaccharides such as sucrose
and lactose are not digested until they reach the small intestine, where they
are acted on by sucrase and lactase, respectively. The major products of the
complete hydrolysis of disaccharide and polysaccharides are three
monosaccharide units: glucose, fructose, and galactose. These are absorbed
through the wall of the small intestine into the bloodstream.
Stage 2: Carbohydrates catabolism
The monosaccharide glucose is broken down through a series of enzyme-catalyzed
reactions known as glycolysis. For each molecule of glucose that is broken down,
two molecules of pyruvate, two molecules of ATP, and two molecules of NADH are
produced. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate, and NADH is
reoxidized to NAD+. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA
and then enters the citric acid cycle. More ATP can be formed from the breakdown of
glucose.

Stage 3:Glycolysis begins with the six carbon ring-shaped structure of a single
glucose molecule and ends with two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called
pyruvate. Glycolysis is regulated at different steps
Fermentation
Fermentation is the process by which living organisms recycle NADH→NAD+ in the
absence of oxygen. NAD+ is a required molecule necessary for the oxidation of
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to produce the high energy molecule 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate. Fermentation occurs in the cytosol of cells.

The Kerb cycle:The fate of pyruvate depends on the species and the presence or
absence of oxygen. If oxygen is present to drive subsequent reaction, pyruvate enters the
mitochondria, where the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs Cycle) (Stage 2) and
electron transport chain (Stage 3) break it down and oxidize it completely to CO2 and H2O .
The energy released builds many more ATP molecules, though of course some is lost as heat.
Oxidative phospholyration
You have just read about two pathways in glucose catabolism—glycolysis and the citric acid
cycle—that generate ATP. Most of the ATP generated during the aerobic catabolism of glucose,
however, is not generated directly from these pathways. Rather, it is derived from a process
that begins with moving electrons through a series of electron transporters that undergo redox
reactions. This causes hydrogen ions to accumulate within the matrix space

ATP Yield from Glycolysis and Oxidative Phosphorylation:

When glucose is chemically "burned" as a fuel to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H2O),
the energy released from this oxidation process is 670 kcal/mol of glucose:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6CO2 + 6 H2O ΔH = -670 kcal/mol

.
Carbohydrates are important cellular energy sources. They provide energy quickly through glycolysis and passing
of intermediates to pathways, such as the citric acid cycle, and amino acid metabolism (indirectly).

Glycogen Synthesis or Glycogenesis :When the glucose intake is higher than the
energy demand, the body stores the glucose excess as glycogen. This process is called glycogenesis.
Let us first consider the steps in glycogen synthesis. 1) Glycogen synthesis from glucose involves
phosphorylation to form Glucose-6-Phospahte (G6P), and isomerization to form Glucose-1-Phosphate
(G1P) (using phosphoglucomutase common to glycogen breakdown). G1P is reacted with UTP to
form UDP-glucose in a reaction catalyzed by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. Glycogen
synthase catalyzes synthesis of glycogen by joining carbon #1 of the UDPG-derived glucose
onto the carbon #4 of the non-reducing end of a glycogen chain. to form the familiar
alpha(1,4) glycogen links. Another product of the reaction is UDP.
Glycogen Breakdown or Glycogenolysis

When the cell requires energy and there is no glucose available, the body will use its
glycogen repository. This process is called Glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis- Reaction and regulation:
The main source of energy for eukaryotes is glucose. When glucose is unavailable,
organisms are capable of metabolizing glucose from other non-carbohydrate
precursors. The process that coverts pyruvate into glucose is called gluconeogenesis.
Pyruvate can be generated from the degradation of lactate, fatty acids, certain amino
acids and glycerol.
Cori cycle
So glycolysis in the muscle and gluconeogenesis in the liver would seem to be cyclic
(see image below). In fact, this apparent cycle was recognized by Carl and Gerti Cori,
who shared the 1947 Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology with Bernardo Houssay
for discovering how glycogen is broken down to pyruvate in muscle (in fact most) cells,
which can then be used to resynthesize glucose in liver cells. Named after the Coris,
The Cori Cycle, shown below, recognizes the interdependence of liver and muscle in
glucose breakdown and resynthesis. Glucose generated in the liver can enter the
bloodstream and be used in the muscle to support the physical activity.
Carbohydrate loading:
Carbohydrate loading is a tactic used by athletes involved in high – intensity
endurance exercise to maximize the glycogen stores in the body. Glycogen is the
stored form of carbohydrates in humans and is stored mainly in the muscles (80%)
and liver (20%).

Who Needs Carbohydrate Loading?

Athletes who participate in a high – intensity endurance sport event or training
session require carbohydrate loading.
How to Do Carbohydrate Loading?

There are two different regimens for carbohydrate loading: a) 3 – day regimen, and b) one – day
regimen.
The 3 – Day Regimen Carb Loading:
This regimen is more common than one – day regimen. It should be started 72 hours to 96 hours
(3 – 4 days) before competition. Here are the step by step procedures you should follow:

1. Reduce intensity and duration of your training about 50%.

2. Increase your daily intake of carbohydrate to 8 – 10 grams per kilogram of your body
weight. In other words, 70% - 80% of your total daily calories should come from complex
carbohydrates. The carbohydrates should be low in glycemic index (below 55). Sweet
potatoes, brown rice, spaghetti, and quinoa are the preferred choices.
The One – Day Regimen Carb Loading:
This regimen is a modified version of the 3 – day regimen carb loading and can yield to the same results.
This regimen should be started 24 hours before competition.Here are the step by step procedures you
should follow:

1. Do an extremely high – intensity training 24 hours before the event to deplete glycogen stores.
The reason for depleting glycogen stores first is to enhance the sensitivity of the muscle and
liver cells to insulin.
2. Take 2 grams of high glycemic index carbohydrate per kilogram of your body weight within 30
minutes after your intense training session. Watermelon is the preferred choice, as it has a high
glycemic index and contains a high amount of citrulline (see “Watermelon” under the section of “
Fruits”). A unique function of citrulline is to enhance re-absorption of lactic acid, which is carried
to the liver to be converted to glucose.
3. Then take 10 grams of complex carbohydrates per kilogram of your body weight over the next
24 hours. The carbohydrates should be low in glycemic index (below 55). Sweet potatoes,brown
rice, spaghetti, and quinoa are the preferred choices.
Glycemic Index:
Glycemic Index (GI) is the ranking of foods based on their abilities to increase
blood sugar level two hours after ingestion in comparison to an increase two hours
after ingestion of the reference food, pure glucose.
By definition, the glycemic index for glucose is 100, and the other foods are
compared to glucose.
The lower GI foods produce a slow and sustained increase in blood sugar level,
leading to a more stable blood sugar level and slow release of insulin. The higher
GI foods break down faster during digestion and increase blood sugar level quickly
yet transient, leading to rapid release of insulin.
 Classification Glycemic Index
High >70

Medium 56-69

Low <55

* High GI foods induce a rapid release of insulin.

* Medium GI foods induce a moderate release of insulin.

* Low GI foods induce a slow release of insulin.