BIOMOLECU

LES
(Carbohydrates,
Proteins, Lipids,
Nucleic Acid)
 Biomolecules
Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are
involved in the maintenance and metabolic processes of living
organisms. These non-living molecules are the actual foot
soldiers of the battle for sustenance of life. They range from
small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and
hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, lipids, etc.
There are 4 major classes of Biomolecules
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are thought to be the most abundant organic
substances in nature. They can be broadly divided into two main
groups; simple carbohydrates (or sugars) and complex
carbohydrates (AKA starches).

Common examples of simple carbohydrates include glucose,

fructose, galactose, sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Examples of
complex carbohydrates include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
 How are carbohydrates formed?

Carbohydrates are made by green plants during

photosynthesis, a complex process in which sunlight
provides the energy to convert CO2 into glucose. It acts as
an intermediary by which solar energy is stored and used
to support life.
 Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are generally classified according to
the number of sugar units in a molecule namely:

• Monosaccharide- one sugar unit. It can’t be hydrolyzed into

smaller molecules. The common examples are glucose, fructose,
and galactose.
• Disaccharide- two simple sugar units per molecule linked
together. The common examples are sucrose (table sugar),
maltose, and lactose.
• Polysaccharide- made up of many sugar units in a molecule. It
can break into its constituent monosaccharide units. The common
examples are cellulose glycogen and starch
Examples of Monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, and galactose are

monosaccharides
Monosaccharides

• simplest group of carbohydrates and often called simple sugars

• colorless, crystalline solids that are soluble in water and
insoluble in a non-polar solvent.
• contains a free aldehyde or ketone group.
• Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructose is
sweetest; 73% sweeter than sucrose)
• solids at room temperature
• extremely soluble in water
 Simple Carbohydrates
(Sugars)
Foods containing simple sugars
Simple carbohydrates are also known as sugars. They
are used by the body as a source of quick-release
energy and are naturally found in foods like fruits and
milk. Refined sugars are sugars that have been
processed, and are found in foods such as table sugar,
candy, and soda.

The simplest types of carbohydrates are

called monosaccharides (literally meaning one
sugar). Monosaccharides are carbohydrate monomers
and can be bound together to make more complex
carbohydrates.
Glucose
Glucose is the most common type of
monosaccharide in nature and is found in bread,
rice, pasta, potatoes, fruits, vegetables, and refined
sugar—the primary fuel from which energy is
produced in living organisms.
-blood sugar
Fructose
Fructose is the ‘fruit sugar’ and is found in fruits,
vegetables, honey, and table sugar.
Galactose
In nature, galactose is usually found bound to
other sugars, for example in lactose (the milk sugar).
Disaccharides
are another type of simple carbohydrate.
Disaccharide means two sugars; therefore, they
are made of two monosaccharides joined
together by a glycosidic bond. Glycosidic bonds
form between sugars as a result of a chemical
reaction called a condensation reaction (AKA
a dehydration reaction).
Disaccharide
• a molecule formed by two monosaccharides
• their chemical formula is C12H22O11
• formed through condensation or dehydration
reactions
• found in many foods and are often added as
sweeteners
• Glycosidic bonds are formed to join the
molecules
Examples of Disaccharides
Lactose
Lactose is found in milk and is made of one molecule of
glucose bound to one molecule of galactose.
Sucrose
Sucrose is used as an energy storage molecule by green plants
and is made of one molecule of fructose bound to one molecule
of glucose. It is extracted from plants for use as table sugar and
is found in candy, cake, and other sweetened foods.
Maltose
Maltose (or malt sugar) is naturally found in wheat, barley,
cornmeal, and other grains. It is also found in some fruits,
such as peaches and pears. Maltose is made of two
glucose molecules joined together.
Complex Carbohydrates (Starches)
Complex carbohydrates are also known
as starches. They are polysaccharides (meaning many
sugars) and are made up of lots of glucose molecules,
which are joined together in long chains by glycosidic
bonds. There are three main types of polysaccharides;
these are starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
 Examples of Polysaccharides
Starch
Starch is produced by green plants and is
made of excess glucose produced during
photosynthesis. It is used by plants as a food
storage molecule and is kept in
the chloroplasts (where it is stored as
granules) or in tubers (e.g. potatoes) or
the roots of certain plants (like cassava).

Starches are found in many foods, including

grains and grain products (like bread, pasta,
wheat, and oats) certain vegetables (such as
potatoes, squash, and corn), and legumes (like
peas, beans, and lentils).
Glycogen
Whereas starch is used to store energy in plants, glycogen is
used to store energy in higher animals (including humans) and
various microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi). In
humans, it is primarily found in the liver and muscles.
Cellulose
Cellulose (AKA fiber) is a structural material
found in plant cell walls. It is very rigid and is
used to preserve the shape of plant cells and
protect their contents.

Plenty of animals (like cows, horses, and

koalas) can digest cellulose, but humans lack
the enzymes necessary to do so. However,
cellulose is essential for healthy digestion in
humans, as it helps food to move through the
digestive tract. Cellulose in the diet is
called fiber).
Polysaccharide:
• are also called “glycans”
• are not sweet
• not soluble in water
• contain more than 10 monosaccharide units and can be hundreds of sugar
units in length.
• Through Hydrolysis can yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides
• Polysaccharides differ from each other in the identity of their recurring
monosaccharide units,
o in the length of their chains,
o in the types of bond linking units and
o in the degree of branching.

****Isomers. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different

structures as observe in the examples of each class of carbohydrates
observed
Chemical Property of Carbohydrates

1. Reducing Property. All monosaccharides and disaccharides containing

free aldehyde and ketone groups are reducing.
2. Osazone crystal formation. Osazone are carbohydrate derivatives when
sugars are reacted with an excess of phenylhydrazine.
3. Reaction with acids. Disaccharides and other higher carbohydrates mix
easily with acids.
4. Reaction with alkali. Sugar easily reacts with a strong base (NaOH) in
which it turns yellow to brown with a caramel odor.
5. Hydrolysis. Polysaccharides can be hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes
6. Fermentation. A process of decomposing carbohydrates with the aid of
yeast, bacteria, etc.
Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are everywhere. They occur in every living organism and are
essential to life. They serve as important energy sources for different metabolic
activities. They have the following major functions:

• They are used by living organisms as accessible energy to fuel

cellular reactions.
• They served as metabolic intermediates, energy stores, and fuels
• Stored carbohydrates act as an energy source instead of proteins.
• They form structural and protective components of the cell
membrane
• They are intermediates in the biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• They serve as energy sources for the brain.
• They get linked with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens,
receptor molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics.
• They form part of the structural framework of RNA and DNA
molecules
• They are an essential component of connective tissues in animals.
• They help in the modulation of the immune system.
Have you ever wondered which is responsible for your curly
or straight hair, the keratin of your skin and fingernails, the
insulin that regulates glucose metabolism in the body, and
the DNA polymerase that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA in
cells?

Do you know that proteins are responsible for all the listed
functions? Yes! Proteins are large biomolecules that found in
every living organism. They are of many types and have a lot
of biological functions.
What are proteins made of?

Proteins are made up of many amino

acid units linked together by amide
bonds in a long chain. Below is the
structure of amino acids.
Have you observed the two
functional groups of amino
acids? What are they?

A. Basic amino group (NH2)

B. Acidic carboxyl group (COOH)
Classes of Protein
Simple Proteins- yield only amino acids and no other
compounds on hydrolysis.

A. Fibrous Proteins- consist of polypeptide chains

arranged side by side in long filaments and insoluble
in water. Examples: keratin in nails and hair, collagen
in muscle
B. Globular Proteins-nearly circular shapes, which
normally coiled into compact. They are soluble in
water. Examples: hemoglobin from blood, insulin,
enzyme
Conjugated Proteins- yield other
compounds in addition to amino acids on
hydrolysis. It is more common than
simple proteins.
Derived Proteins- They are formed from large molecular weight
proteins by the action of heat, enzymes, or chemical agents, thus
they have lower molecular weights. They are derivatives or
degraded products of simple and conjugated proteins.

They may be :
a. Primary derived protein: Proteans, Metaproteins, Coagulated
proteins
b. Secondary derived proteins: Proteosesn or albunoses,
peptones, peptides.
Different Levels of Protein Structure
The different functions of proteins are dependent on the
sequence and structure of proteins. Thus, there are different
levels of Protein Structure:
1. Primary Structure is the sequence of amino acids which is
linear and linked together by peptide bonds. It is the most
fundamental structural level
2. Secondary Structure- in this level the polypeptide
chain can twist and fold in different ways because single
bonds in the polypeptide chain allow rotation.
3.Tertiary structure- in this level the entire protein
molecules coils into an overall three-dimensional
shape.
4. Quaternary Structure- in this level several protein
molecules join together to form a bigger cluster structure.
 Property of Protein

1. Denaturation. A partial or complete unfolding of the natural

conformation of the polypeptide chain. This is caused by heat, acids,
alkalies, alcohol, acetone, urea, and beta-mercaptoethanol.
2. Coagulation. Insoluble aggregates called coagulum are formed
when proteins are denatured by heat. There are few proteins like
albumins, globulins are heat coagulable.
3. Isoelectric pH. A pH in which the negative and positive charges has
equal number.
4. Molecular Weights of Proteins. Different proteins have different
amino acid composition and hence their molecular weights differ. The
molecular weights of proteins range from 5000 to 109 Daltons
 Functions of Proteins
Proteins functions are endless and are essential for growth and repair.
They also have a broad diversity of biological functions and are the most
significant final products of the information pathways. Here are some of
the biological functions of proteins:

1. They act as biological catalysts (enzymes) such as

chymotrypsin.
2. They act as the defense against infections by means of
protein antibodies.
3. They are responsible for the transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide by hemoglobin and special enzymes in the
red cells.
enzymes
4. They serve as structural components such as
keratin of hair and nails, collagen of bone etc.
5. They act as hormones that regulate body
processes such as insulin.
6. They serve as the storage of nutrients such as
casein.
7. They are involved in blood clotting through
thrombin, fibrinogen, and other protein factors.
,
Lipids

Lipids are naturally occurring organic substances

that can be isolated from cells in addition to tissues by
extraction with a nonpolar solvent. These contain carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms that form a framework for the
structure and function of living cells. Lipid molecules in the
human body can be synthesized in the liver and are typically
found in butter, whole milk, oil, cheese, fried food, and red
meats.
What are lipids made up of?
Lipids are made up of a glycerol molecule and it is connected
to three fatty acid molecules. Such a lipid is called triglyceride.
Fatty acids are organic compounds

that have the general formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH, where n usually

ranges from 2 to 28 and is always an even number.
Lipid Structure
Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar
hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. The fatty
acids can be saturated or unsaturated as shown below:
Saturated Fatty Acids- only contains single bonds between
neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain. These are
commonly found in animals’ meat.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids- contains double bonds in the
hydrocarbon chains. These lipids are usually plant-based.
 Classes of Lipids

Simple Lipids are esters of fatty acids with different alcohols.

Fats Oil
Animal fats and vegetable oils are the most widely occurring lipids. Fats are
esters of fatty acid with glycerol which is usually in a solid state at room temperature while
oils are fats in a liquid state. Lard and butter are examples of animal fats. On the other
hand, corn oil, olive oil, and sesame oil are examples of oils. Fats in the right amount are
significant in the proper functions of the body. For a longer time, fats can store energy and
provide the body’s insulation.

Chemically fats and oils are called triacylglycerols or triglycerides -described as

triesters of glycerols with three long-chain carboxylic acids.
• Waxes
Waxes are esters of fatty acids with monohydroxyl alcohol (one hydroxyl
group) having high molecular weight. They are observed in nature. Examples
are the waxy coating of fruits and leaves which protects them from
dehydration. In addition, birds feathers and fur of some animals have the same
coatings which serve as water repellent.
Compound Lipids
are esters of fatty acids and alcohols containing additional groups
such as phosphates, nitrogenous base, and others.

• Glycolipids
Upon hydrolysis, glycolipids formed fatty acids, sphingosine or glycerol,
and a carbohydrate. They are occurring in all tissues on the outside
surface of the plasma membrane.
• Phospholipids
are esters of fatty acids with glycerol containing an esterified phosphoric
acid and a nitrogen base. They are abundant in nerve tissue, brain, liver,
kidney, pancreas and heart. Phospholipids have biological functions such
as; (1) helping in blood clotting, (2) serving as transport of inorganic ions
across the membrane and (3) increasing oxidation of fatty acids ,

Steroids
Steroids have fused ring which is different from fats and
phospholipids. They are classified as lipids because they are also
hydrophobic and insoluble in water even if they do not resemble.
In humans, most steroids function as hormones, which are
chemical messengers that are secreted by glands and transported through
the bloodstream to target tissues.
• Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a common steroid that is composed of four-fused rings. It
has a wax-like substance, located only in animal-source foods. There are
different types of cholesterol found in the blood cells they are triglycerides,
Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL), High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL), and Very
Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL).

Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver and is a precursor to vitamin D and

to many significant steroid hormones like testosterone, estrogen, and
progesterone which are secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands.
Thus, it serves a vital function in the body’s reproductive system.
Cholesterol is also the precursor to bile salts, which help in the
emulsification of fats and their absorption by cells.
 Properties of Lipids
Lipids play an important role in the body and it yields a
high amount of energy. And there are some significant
characteristics.

• Lipids are stored in adipose tissue of the body which is normally an

oily nonpolar molecule.
• Lipids are composed of different groups of compounds which are
mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains.
• It gives energy for various life.
• It is soluble in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water
Functions of Lipids
Lipids perform many functions, such as:

• Acts as energy storage

• Provides insulation
• Acts as structural component of the body
• Precursor in biological membranes
• Acts as hormones
• Acts as a major source of energy in animals and high lipid-
containing seeds
• Serves as enzyme activator
• Serves as Protection – e.g. protecting plant leaves from
dehydration
 Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids are molecules that code for heredity traits by controlling the
production of protein. Like proteins, nucleic acids are long chains of polymers
consisting of simpler units or monomers. The monomers of nucleic acids are
nucleotides. They are made up of three parts:

A five-carbon sugar (pentose)

A phosphate group
A ring-shaped base containing nitrogen group

The pentagon represents a five-carbon sugar (pentose) and the rectangle

represents a nitrogen-containing base
Function of Nucleic Acid

• Storing genetic information

• Protein synthesis
Kinds of Nucleic Acid

• DNA
• RNA