INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED LEVEL

BIOLOGY
ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY

CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS &

PROTEINS

 Amal Hulangamuwa (B.Sc)  University of Sri Jayewardenepura 

CARBOHYDRATES
A carbohydrate is an organic compound that is composed of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen in a ratio of 1 carbon atom, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom. Some
carbohydrates are relatively small molecules, the most important to us is glucose which has
6 carbon atoms. These simple sugars are called monosaccharides.

A pair of monosaccharides is called a disaccharide and several monosaccharides joined

together is called a polysaccharide. Both monosaccharides and disaccharides are soluble in
water.

The primary function of carbohydrates is for short-term energy storage (sugars are for

Energy). A secondary function is intermediate-term energy storage (as in starch for plants
and glycogen for animals). Other carbohydrates are involved as structural components in
cells, such as cellulose which is found in the cell walls of plants.

The sugar subunits can be linked by the reaction, dehydration synthesis, to form larger
molecules. The disaccharide, Sucrose, is formed from two monosaccharides, Glucose and
Fructose. The disaccharide Lactose is a dimer (two subunits) of Glucose and Galactose, the
disaccharide Maltose is a dimer of Glucose.

Monosaccharides

 Monosaccharides are soluble and have the general formula (CH20) n. n can be any
number from 3 -7.

 Glucose is a hexose because it has 6 carbon atoms and has the formula C6H12O6

 Even though it has the same chemical formula, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms can
be arranged in many different ways.

Glucose Galactose Fructose

Glucose is the most Galactose has the Fructose has a very

common sugar.
Although its molecular
arrangement is often
shown as a straight
line, its atoms form a
ring.
same chemical different structure to
formula as glucose. glucose and is often
However on the left used as a
of the diagram you sweetener.
can see how the
Hydroxide and
hydrogen atoms are
arranged differently
to glucose.
Disaccharides
When combined in pairs monosaccharides form disaccharides.

 Glucose with glucose forms maltose

 Glucose with fructose forms sucrose
 Glucose linked with Galactose forms lactose.

 When two monosaccharides join together a

water molecule is removed. This is called a
condensation reaction.

 In order to break the bond, water is added to

the molecule in a process called hydrolysis.

 The bond holding the two monomers

together is called a glycosidic bond.

Polysaccharides
 Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides combined together through
glycosidic bonds.

 Because they are very long molecules, they are often insoluble. This means that they
are very suitable for storage.

 When hydrolysed, polysaccharides break down into disaccharides or

monosaccharides.

 Some polysaccharides such as starch are not used for storage, but instead are used
to give support to plant cells.

Starch
Starch is a long (100's) polymer of Glucose molecules, where all the sugars are oriented in
the same direction. Starch is one of the primary sources of calories for humans.

Two types are found:

I. amylose consists of linear, unbranched chains of several hundred glucose residues

(units). The glucose residues are linked by a glycosidic bond between their #1 and #4
carbon atoms.
 II. amylopectin differs from amylose in being highly branched. At approximately every
thirtieth residue along the chain, a short side chain is attached by a glycosidic bond
to the #6 carbon atom.

Starches are insoluble in water and thus can serve as storage depots of glucose.
Plants convert excess glucose into starch for storage. Rice, wheat, and corn (maize)
are also major sources of starch in the human diet.

Glycogen
Glycogen is another Glucose polymer. Glycogen is a stored energy source, found in the
Liver and muscles of Humans. Glycogen is different from both Starch and Cellulose in that
the Glucose chain is branched.

Animals store excess glucose by polymerizing it to form glycogen. The structure of glycogen
is similar to that of amylopectin, although the branches in glycogen tend to be shorter and
more frequent. Glycogen is broken back down into glucose when energy is needed (a
process called glycogenolysis).

Cellulose
Cellulose is a long (100's) polymer of Glucose molecules. However the orientation of the
sugars is a little different. In Cellulose, every other sugar molecule is "upside-down". This
small difference in structure makes a big difference in the way we use this molecule.

Cellulose is similar in form to complex carbohydrates like starch and glycogen. These
polysaccharides are also made from multiple subunits of glucose. The difference between
cellulose and other complex carbohydrate molecules is how the glucose molecules are
linked together.

In addition, cellulose is a straight chain polymer, and each cellulose molecule is long and
rod-like. This differs from starch, which is a coiled molecule. A result of these differences in
structure is that, compared to starch and other carbohydrates, cellulose cannot be broken
down into its glucose subunits by any enzymes produced by animals.

Carbohydrate digestion
 It usually takes more than one enzyme to break down a large molecule.

 Food is physically broken down by teeth to increase surface area.

 Normally one enzyme breaks a large molecule into smaller sections, and then other
enzymes break these down to monomers.

 Firstly the enzyme “amylase” is produced in the mouth by salivary glands, where the
pH is kept at neutral by mineral salts.

 This enzyme breaks starch into maltose by hydrolysing the glycosidic bonds holding
the molecule together.

 Once the food is swallowed, the enzyme is destroyed by the stomach acid where the
pH is around 2. This means that no more starch can be digested.

 After the stomach, food passes into the small intestine where it mixes with pancreatic
juices.

 The pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase which hydrolyses the remaining
starch.

 Alkaline salts are produced by the intestine wall and the pancreas to maintain the pH
at neutral so that the enzymes can work efficiently.

 The epithelial lining of the intestine produces the enzyme maltase. This breaks
maltose into glucose.

 Sucrase which is produced by the epithelial lining breaks down sucrose into fructose
and glucose.

 People who are lactose intolerant do not produce enough lactase to break down the
lactose found in milk.

 When undigested lactose enters the small intestine, bacteria digest it and produce
lots of gas.

 This can cause stomach cramps, nausea and diarrhoea.

 For new born babies, milk makes up the majority of their diet. To overcome the
problem of lactose intolerance amongst children, lactose can be pre-digested before
consumption.
 Test for non-reducing sugars

 To test for a non reducing sugar it must first be hydrolysed then added to Benedict’s
reagent.

Test for starch

 To test for starch, add potassium iodine solution. If starch is present, the iodine will
turn from yellow to blue-black.

Lipids
 Lipids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 The proportion of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen is smaller than in carbohydrates.
 They are insoluble in water.
 They are soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol and acetone.

Roles of lipids
Phospholipids contribute to the flexibility of membranes and the transfer of lipid-soluble
substances across them. In addition to this, lipids can be used as:

An energy source. Lipids can provide more than twice the energy of carbohydrate.

Waterproofing. Lipids are insoluble in water and are therefore suitable for waterproofing.

Insulation. Fats are slow conductors of heat, kept under skin to retain heat in the body.

Protection. Often stored around delicate organs.

Triglycerides are so called because they have three fatty acids (tri) combined with glycerol
(glyceride).

Each fatty acids combines with glycerol in a condensation reaction.

Test for lipids

1. Take a dry, grease free test tube.

2. Take 2cm3 of the sample and add 5cm3 of ethanol.

3. Shake the test tube and dissolve the lipids.

4. Add 5cm3 of water and shake gently.

5. A cloudy white colour indicates the presence of a lipid.

Proteins
Proteins, from the Greek proteios, meaning first, are a class of organic compounds which
are present in and vital to every living cell. In the form of skin, hair, callus, cartilage, muscles,
tendons and ligaments, proteins hold together, protect, and provide structure to the body of
a multi-celled organism.In the form of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and globulins, they
catalyze, regulate, and protect the body chemistry. In the form of hemoglobin, myoglobin and
various lipoproteins, they effect the transport of oxygen and other substances within an
organism.

Prosthetic Groups
In addition to all of the amino acids which are bonded
together, some proteins will have additional molecular units
attached to them. These are generally called prosthetic
groups and they are usually quite important in carrying out
the function of the particular protein.

Fibrous and Globular Proteins

The two major classes of proteins are the fibrous proteins and the globular proteins .The
fibrous proteins are generally long and insoluble in water. The globular proteins are tightly
folded and most of them are soluble in water. Some proteins combine the properties of both
fibrous and globular within the same protein.
 Globular proteins are relatively spherical in shape as the name implies. Common globular
proteins include egg albumin, hemoglobin, myoglobin, insulin, serum globulins in blood, and
many enzymes.

Fibrous proteins can be subdivided into several different types:

 keratins, found in hair, fingernails, and bird feathers
 collagens – the most abundant proteins in a vertebrate body – found in connective
tissues such as cartilage
 elastins, found in ligaments, around blood vessels.

Amino
acids
Proteins are polymers of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. There are 20
different amino acids that make up essentially all proteins on earth. Each of these amino
acids has a fundamental design composed of a central carbon (also called the alpha carbon)
bonded to:

 a hydrogen
 a carboxyl group
 an amino group
 a unique side chain or R-group

Peptide Linkages

The structure of proteins

Primary structure: the linear arrangement of
the sequence of amino acids.

Secondary structure: The coiling or bending of

the polypeptide into sheets or helices is referred
to the proteins secondary structure. When the
chain coils, the structure is called an alpha helix.
When the chain pleats, the structure is called
a beta-pleated sheet.

Tertiary Structure: Tertiary structure refers to a

precise, compact three-dimensional structure of
a single protein molecule.

Quaternary Structure: Complex structure

formed by the interaction of 2 or
more polypeptide chains. There are two major
categories of proteins with quaternary structure
- fibrous and globular.

Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids allow organisms to
transfer genetic information from one
generation to the next. There are two types of
nucleic acids:deoxyribonucleic acid, better
known as DNA and ribonucleic acid,better known as RNA.
When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next
generation. DNA contains the "programmatic instructions" for cellular activities. When
organisms produce offspring, these instructions, in the form of DNA, are passed down. RNA
is involved in the synthesis of proteins. "Information" is typically passed from DNA to RNA to
the resulting proteins.

Nucleotides
Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers. Nucleotides have three parts:
 A Nitrogenous Base
 A Five-Carbon Sugar
 A Phosphate Group
Polynucleotides
In polynucleotides, nucleotides are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the
phosphate of one and the sugar of another. These linkages are called phosphodiester
linkages.

What is DNA?
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other
organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in
the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be
found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).

The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases,
and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or
sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining
an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to
form words and sentences.

DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs.
Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a
base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long
strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat
like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate
molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.

An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of
DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is
critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA
present in the old cell.

What is RNA?
RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. It is an important molecule with long chains of nucleotides.
A nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate. Just like DNA,
RNA is vital for living beings.
The main job of RNA is to transfer the genetic code need for the creation of proteins from the
nucleus to the ribosome. This process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus.
This keeps the DNA and genetic code protected from damage. Without RNA, proteins could
never be made.

RNA is formed from DNA by a process called transcription. This uses enzymes like RNA
polymerases. RNA is central to protein synthesis. First a type of RNA called messenger RNA
(mRNA) carries information from DNA to structures called ribosomes. These ribosomes are
made from proteins and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). These all come together and form a
complex that can read messenger RNAs and translate the information they carry into
proteins. This requires the help of transfer RNA or tRNA.

Protein

Synthesis
Protein biosynthesis is the process in which cells build protein. The term is sometimes used
to refer only to protein translation, but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning
with transcription and ending with translation:

Enzymes
Enzymes are compounds that assist chemical reactions by increasing the rate at which they
occur. For example, the food that you eat is broken down by digestive enzymes into tiny
pieces that are small enough to travel through your blood stream and enter cells. Enzymes
are proteins that are found in all living organisms. Without enzymes, most chemicals
reactions within cells would occur so slowly that cells would not be able to work properly.

Enzymes function as catalysts. Catalysts accelerate the rate of a chemical reaction without
being destroyed or changed. They can be reused for the same chemical reaction over and
over, just like a key can be reused to open a door many times. Enzymes are generally
named after the substrate affected, and their names usually end in -ase. For example,
enzymes that break down proteins are called proteases. While lipases break down lipids,
carbohydrases break down carbohydrates.

The compounds that enzymes act upon are known as substrates. The substrate can bind to
a specific place in the enzyme called the active site. By temporarily binding to the substrate,
an enzyme can lower the energy needed for a reaction to occur, thus making this reaction
faster. The energy required for a chemical reaction to occur is known as the activation
energy. Once the reaction between an enzyme and a substrate is complete, the substrate is
changed to a product while the enzyme remains unchanged.

The rate of the reaction between an enzyme and a substrate can be affected by different
factors. Some of the factors that can affect enzyme activity are temperature, pH,
concentration of the enzyme and concentration of the substrate. In living organisms,
enzymes work best at certain temperatures and pH values depending on the type of
enzyme.

Temperature

The rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction also increases with temperature, but only up to a
point called the optimum temperature. Because high temperature yields more energy so
Enzymes and Substrates make more collisions each other. At higher temperatures, the
enzyme denatures. Most human enzymes have optimum temperature between 35°C and
40°C, a range that includes normal body temperature. Bacteria that live in hot springs have
more stable enzymes so the optimum temperature for those enzymes can be 70°C or
higher.

pH value
The pH in the medium also greatly affect for the action of the enzyme. Most enzymes have a
pH optimum that usually ranges from pH 6 to 8. The reason is most of the time pH inside the
cell remain 7. But some enzymes can work in extreme pH conditions such as enzyme
pepsin, for example, digests proteins in the stomach at pH 2, a very acidic level.

Some of the enzymes that digest food in human gut.