1

CARBOHYDRATES
Organic
compounds
that
consist
of
CARBON, HYDROGEN & OXYGEN.
Carbo + Water (Hydrated Carbon Atom)
It is stored in the muscles & in the liver &
can be converted quickly when the body
needs energy
Carbohydrates provide the major source of
energy for people all over the world
They provide approximately half the
calories 55 70 % for Filipino
RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF CHO:
Filipino diet 55 70% of the daily total
calorie intake
Majority
should
come
from
complex
CHO(starches & fibers)
Moderate
Sugar
intake
is
encourage
amounting to maximum of 10% of total
calories. Enough for pleasure but not enough
to displace more nutritious food.
Recommended intake of dietary fibers is 35
30 grams per day
Example: A 54 individual needing 200
Kcal/day will have a CHO allowance of 300
grams
Soln: 2000 x .60 = 1200 kcal / 4 kcal/g = 300
grams

1.

2.

3.

FUNCTIONS:
PROVIDING ENERGY
is the major function of carbohydrates.
Each gram of carbohydrate provides 4
calories.
The body needs to maintain a constant
supply of energy. Therefore, it stores
approximately half a days supply of
carbohydrate in the liver and muscles for
use as needed. In this form, it is called
glycogen.
PROTEIN-SPARING ACTION
When enough carbohydrates (at least 50
100 g/day) are ingested to supply a
persons energy needs SPARE PROTEINS
for their primary function of building and
repairing body tissues.
NORMAL FAT METABOLISM
Requires
an
adequate
supply
of
carbohydrates.
If there are not enough carbohydrates to
fulfill
the
energy
requirement,
an
abnormally large amount of fat is
metabolized to help meet it.
During such an emergency need for energy,
fat oxidization in the cells is not complete
and
substances
called
ketones
are
produced.
Ketones are acids that accumulate in the
blood and urine, upsetting the acid-base
balance. When fat is broken down, ketone
bodies are made and can accumulate in the
body. High levels of ketones are toxic to the
body. The condition is called ketoacidosis.
Such a condition is called ketoacidosis. It
can result from IDDM

4. PROVIDING FIBER
In the diet is another important function of
carbohydrates.
Dietary fiber is found in grains, vegetables,
and fruits.
Fiber creates a soft, bulky stool that moves
quickly through the large intestine.
FUNCTIONS
1. Chief source of energy (4Kcal/gm)
2. CHON sparer When the body needs fuel,
glucose are first used as energy before proteins
are utilized making this nutrient available for
its vital function of building, and repairing
tissues.
3. Regulator of fat metabolism Prevents
incomplete oxidation of fat.
4. Sole energy source for brain and nerve
tissues Brain and nerve tissues utilize only
glucose for energy.
5. Functions of fiber:
Act as a broom in our digestive tract.
Reduces incidence of colon Ca.
Reduces blood cholesterol level by
binding with bile acids, increasing
excretion of unwanted constituents.
It is important in the management of
diabetic diets delays gastric emptying
and slows down glucose absorption.
Ease Elimination it absorbs water,
preventing constipation.
Decreases incidence of hemorrhoids
large stools ease elimination for the
rectal muscles and reduce the pressure
in the lower bowel, making it less likely
that rectal veins swell.
Decreases incidence of diverticulitis
fiber stimulates GI tract muscle so that
they retain their strength and resist
bulging out into pouches called
DIVERTICULATIS.
Decreases incidence of appendicitis
regular bowel movement prevent
constipation of the intestinal contents,
which could obstruct the appendix and
permit bacteria to invade and infect it.
6. Special function
Galactose and glucose in the
cerebrosides are constituents of the
brain and nerve tissues.

Lactose has a special function in infant

feeding.
In the liver, glucuromic acid, which is a
metabolite of glucose, has a detoxifying
effect by combining with chemical and
bacterial toxins.
Glycosides are important in drug
therapy.
Insulin which belongs to the partially
digestible polysaccharides is important
medicine for the so called insulin
clearance test, a test for kidney
function.
Ribose and deoxyribose are important
constituents of nucleic acids.
RECOMMENDED INTAKES: 50 60% of total
caloric requirement should be provided by CHO
A. SIMPLE CHO
SIMPLE SUGAR
1. MONOSACCHARIDE
Simplest form CHO; sugars that cannot
be further reduced by hydrolysis and
can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the small intestines.
They are sweet, require no digestion,
and can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the small intestine.
They include glucose, fructose, and
galactose.
a. GLUCOSE
DEXTROSE, BLOOD SUGAR,
PHYSIOLOGIC SUGAR
It is the form of CHO to which all other
form are converted for eventual
metabolism.
It is the simple CHO that circulates in
the blood and is the main source of
ENERGY for CNS & BRAIN.
Sources: Fruits, honey, corn syrup, and
other certain roots.
It is found naturally in corn syrup and
some fruits and vegetables.
The central nervous system, the red
blood cells, and the brain use only
glucose as FUEL; therefore, a continuous
source is needed.
b. FRUCTOSE
Fruit Sugar , Levulose
It is the sweetest sugar.
The arrangement of the atoms
stimulates the taste buds to produce
sweet sensation.
Sources: honey, ripe fruits.
Widely used in pharmaceutical
companies, & food processing.
c. GALACTOSE
Milk Sugar
It is product of digestion of MILK and is
part of disaccharide lactose.
It is converted into glucose by the liver.
d. SUGAR ALCOHOL
Sugar Replacer
These are nutritive sweeteners that
provide 2-3 Kcal/g.

4
Hydrogenated form of CHO.
Mannitol, Sorbitol, Sylitol
* They are less carcinogenic, it
does not encourage the growth of
bacteria in the mouth that leads to
tooth decay.
Mannitol (also referred to
as mannite or manna sugar) is a white,
crystalline solid that looks
and tastes sweet like sucrose. It was originally
isolated from the secretions of the flowering
ash and called manna after its resemblance to
the Biblical food. In plants it is used to
induce osmotic stress. Mannitol has several
industrial uses, but is mainly used to produce
tablets of medicine.
Sorbitol also known as glucitol, is a sugar
alcohol with a sweet taste which the human
body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained
by reduction of glucose, changing
the aldehyde group to a hydroxyl group. Most
sorbitol is made from corn syrup, but it is also
found in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes.
Xylitol is a sugar alcohol used as a
sweetener. s naturally found in low
concentrations in the fibers of
many fruits and vegetables, and can be
extracted from various berries, oats,
and mushrooms, as well as fibrous material
such as corn husks and sugar cane
d. SUGAR ALCOHOL
ADVANTAGE: They are less
carcinogenic, It does not encourage the
growth of bacteria in the mouth that
leads to tooth decay.
They are absorbed slowly and
incompletely than CHO due to longer
absorption time leads to a slower rise in
blood glucose levels.
Delays hunger
DISADVANTAGE: Large quantities(It may
ferment in the GI due to its slow
absorption rate) Gas & DIARRHEA
e. PENTOSE
Ribose & Ribolose
Found in Nucleic Acid of MEAT &
SEAFOODS.
NUCLEIC ACID a 5-carbon sugar,
a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. If
the sugar is deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If
the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and RNA (ribonucleic acid) important
component in our body.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic
acid containing the genetic instructions used in
the development and functioning of all known
living organisms (with the exception of RNA
viruses).
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions in
converting genetic information from genes into
the amino acid sequences of proteins.
2. DISACCHARIDES
Sugar composed of pairs of
MONOSACCHARIDES.

5
Are pairs of the three sugars.
They are sweet and must be changed to
simple sugars by hydrolysis before they
can be absorbed.
Disaccharides include sucrose, maltose,
and lactose
a. SUCROSE
Cane Sugar, Table Sugar
Is formed from pairing of units of
glucose and fructose.
Least expensive and most common
sugar in the diet.
SOURCE: Molasses (is a viscous byproduct of the refining
of sugarcane or sugar
beets into sugar.), Maple syrup,
sorghum
b. MALTOSE
Malt Sugar
It is produced whenever starch breaks
down.
It also occurs during fermentation
process that yields ROH.
Mostlty natural
Maltose is the disaccharide produced
when amylase breaks down starch. It is
found in germinating seeds such
as barley as they break down their
starch stores to use for food. It is also
produced when glucose is caramelized
c. LACTOSE
Milk Sugar
Formed when galactose and glucose are
paired.
Enhances absorption of Ca+ & promotes
growth of bacterial flora (Synthesis of
Vit. K.)

B. COMPLEX CHO
1. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
is a saccharide polymer containing a
small number (typically three to nine) of
simple sugars (monosaccharides).
Oligosaccharides can have many
functions; for example, they are
commonly found on the plasma
membrane of animal cells where they
can play a role in cell-to-cell recognition.
2. POLYSACCHARIDES
are polymeric carbohydrate molecules
composed of long chains of
monosaccharide units bound together
by glycosidic linkages and on hydrolysis
give the constituent monosaccharides
or oligosaccharides.
Nutrition polysaccharides are common
sources of energy. Many organisms can
easily break down starches into glucose;
however, most organisms cannot
metabolize cellulose or other
polysaccharides like chitin and
arabinoxylans.
are commonly called complex
carbohydrates because they are
compounds of many monosaccharides

6
(simple sugars).
Three polysaccharides are important in
nutrition: starch, glycogen, and fiber.
a. STARCH
The most abundant and cheap form of
CHO; plant cells stores glucose as
starch.
It is the most common carbohydrate in
human diets and is contained in large
amounts in such staple foods as
potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and
cassava.
is a polysaccharide found in grains and
vegetables.
It is the storage form of glucose in
plants.
Vegetables contain less starch than
grains
Legumes (dried beans and peas) are
another important source of starch
COMPONENTS:
AMYLOSE is important in plant energy
storage. It is less readily digested than
amylopectin; however, because it is more
linear than amylopectin, it takes up less space.
As a result, it is the preferred starch for storage
in plants. It makes up about 30% of the stored
starch in plants, though the specific percentage
varies by species. The digestive enzyme amylase is responsible for the breakdown of
the starch molecule into maltotriose and
maltose, which can be used as sources of
energy.
AMYLOPECTIN The outer portion of a starch
granule consisting of insoluble, highly branched
polysaccharides of high molecular weight. For
energy storage and food reserve.
b. FIBER
Are non-starch polysaccharide that are
not digested by human digestive
enzymes, although some are digested
by GI tract.
The hard, woody, or stiff substance in
plants that support, coat, or protect
plant cells, is composed of complex CHO
compound
Also called ROUGHAGE
It has beneficial effect.
Recommended fiber: 25 grm/day adult
women 35 grms/day men.
It includes cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectins, gums and mucilages
also called roughage, is indigestible
because it cannot be broken down by
digestive enzymes.
Some fiber is insoluble (it does not
readily dissolve in water), and some is
soluble (it partially dissolves in water)
.Insoluble fibers include cellulose, some
hemicellulose, and lignins.
Soluble fibers are gums, pectins, some
hemicellulose, and
FIBER
CELLULOSE the primary
constituent of plant cell walls

7
and therefore occurs in all
vegetables, fruits and legumes.
The bonds linking its glucose
molecules together resist
digestion by human enzymes.
HEMICELLULOSE are the main
constituent of cereal fibers. The
many backbones and side
chains make the hemicellulose a
diverse group, some are soluble,
while others are insoluble.
PECTINS commonly found in
vegetables and fruits, may be
isolated abnd used by the food
industry to thicken jelly, keep
salad dressing from separating,
and otherwise control texture
and consistency. Pectins can
perform these functions
because they readily forms gel
in water.
GUMS & MUCILAGES when cut,
a plant secrete gums from the
site of injury. Gums such as
Arabic are used as additives by
the food industry. Mucilages are
similar to gums in structure;
they include guar and
carrageenan, which are added
to foods as stabilizers.
INSOLUBLE FIBER
Indigestible food
components that do not
dissolve in water
Resistant to absorption in
the body/
It moves quickly through
the digestive system,
reducing pxs in the GIT.
It absorbs water making
stool softer and bulkier.
FOUND primarily in WHOLE
GRAINS, NUTS & SEEDS,
vegetables * cooked dried
beans & pees
WHOLE GRAINS: wheat
bran, wheat, rice bran,
unpolished rice
SOLUBLE FIBER
Is associated with reducing
blood cholesterol levels.
It will bind to certain
substances & prevent their
absorption either binding
BILE ACIDS or COATING the
intestines.
c. GYCOGEN
It is the storage form of CHO in the
body, chiefly in the liver and muscle.
is sometimes called animal starch.
In the healthy adult, approximately onehalf dayssupply of energy is stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscles.
The hormone GLUCAGON helps the
liver convert glycogen to glucose as

8
needed for energy.
FLOWCHART OF DIGESTION OF CHO

Starch digestion
Salivary amylase (saliva) oligosaccharides at
pH 6.75 7.00
Pancreatic amylase (small intestine) breaks
down any that escaped salivary amylase
oligosaccharides
Brush border enzymes (dextrinase,
glucoamylase, lactase, maltase, sucrase)
oligosaccharides monosaccharides
ABDORPTION OF CHO
Monosaccharide Glucose & galactose are
absorbed though the intestinal mucosa & travel
to the liver through the portal vein.
Small amounts of starch & fiber that
haven't been digested are excreted in
feces.
Soluble fiber slows the absorption of
glucose, delaying the rise in serum
glucose that occur after eating.
METABOLISM OF CHO

In the LIVER, FRUCTOSE & GALACTOSE

are converted to glucose.
The LIVER then releases glucose into
the bloodstream, where its level is
maintained by the action of
hormone(INSULIN)

*Rise in serum blood glucose stimulates

INSULIN, which moves glucose out of the blood
cells & into the cells.
*BODY Uses up the ENERGY decrease Blood

9
glucose stimulates PANCREAS to release
GLUCAGON, which cause the LIVER the
RELEASE of GLUCOSE from its supply of
GLYCOGEN - Rise in GLUCOSE to NORMAL

1.

2.

3.

4.

HEALTH EFFECTS AND OTHER HEALTH

RELATED CONCERNS INVOLVING CHO
NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES
Foods that contains lots of added sugar
such as cakes, candies and sodas
deliver glucose and energy with few, if
any, other nutrients.
Sugar can contribute to nutrient
deficiencies only by displacing nutrients.
DENTAL CARIES
Bacteria ferments the sugars and in
the process produce an acid that
dissolves the tooth enamel.
LACTOSE INTOLERENCE
Lactase the enzymes that hydrolyzes
lactose
CAUSES:
o LACTASE DEFICIENCY
Develops when the intestinal villi
are damage by disease certain
medicine, prolonged diarrhea or
malnutrition and in rare cases
infant born with lactase
deficiency.
o LACTASE declines dramatically
during childhood and
adolescence. Only about 30% of
the people in the world retain
enough lactase to digest and
absorb lactose efficiently
throughout adult life.
o MANAGEMENT:
Can consume foods containing
6 g of lactose 1/2 cup of milk)
without experiencing signs and
symptoms.
Can tolerate fermented milk.
Give acidophilus milk these
are cultured milk created by
adding Lactobacillus Acidophilus
(It breaks down lactose to
galactose & glucose).
Hard cheese / cottage cheese
most of the lactose is removed
with whey during manufacturing
and continues to diminish as the
cheese ages
Use of enzyme tablets, enzyme
drops
On strict lactose-free diet
DM
Metabolic disorder of CHO metabolism
characterized by altered glucose
regulation and utilization from absent,
insufficient or ineffective insulin.
TYPES:
o TYPE 1 IDDM

10
o TYPE 2 NIDM
5. OBESITY
Develops when a persons fat cells
increases in number, in size or both.

PROTEINS
Are components of every living cell, are
large, complex molecules composed of
individual building blocks known as
AMINO ACIDS.
Denotes the unique functions of building
and repairing cells and other specialized
roles in metabolism that cannot be
accomplished or performed by other
nutrients.
Proeteios is of prime importance.
It has CARBON, HYDROHEN, and
OXYGEN & NITROGEN atom.
It is required for normal growth and
development.
It is broken down by the body as a
source of energy when the supply of
CHO and Fats is inadequate.
It is stored in muscles, bone, blood skin,
cartilage, and lymph
CLASSIFICATIONS

A. ACCORDING TO ESSENTIALITY
1. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Is one that cannot be synthesized by
the body from materials readily
available, at a speed to keep up with
normal growth rate.
ESSENTIAL AA
o Phenylalanine
o Histidine
o Isoleucine
o Leucine
o Lysine
o Threonine
o Tryptophan
o Valine
o Methionine
2. SEMI-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Reduces the need for a particular
essential amino acids or partially spares
it. However it cannot completely replace
the EAA.
SEAA
o Arginine
o Tyrosine
o Serine
o Cysteine
o Glycine
3. NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Also called dispensable amino acids
because it is non-dietary essential and
can be synthesized by the body given
the nitrogen to form the amino group
and fragments from CHO and fats to
form the rest of the structure.
NEAA
o Alanine
o Arginine
o Asparagine
o Asparic acid
o Cysteine
o Glycine
o Glutamine

11
o Glutamic acid
o Proline
o Serine
o Tyrosine
4. CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Sometimes a non-essential amino acid
with becomes essential under special
circumstances
Ex. Phenylalanine can be made into
Tyrosine
For patients with PKU, the non-essential
amino acid tyrosine becomes
conditionally essential
B. ACCORDING TO THE CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF THEIR SIDE CHAIN
1. BASIC AMINO ACIDS
Those with additional amino acid group.
Ex. Lysine, Arginine, Histidine
2. ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS
Those that contain additional carboxyl
group.
Ex. Aspartic acid
3. NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS
Those that contains additional acidic or
basic group.
Ex. Threonine, Glycine, Tryptophan,
Phenylalanine
C. ACCORDING TO HYDROLYTIC PRODUCTS
AND SOURCES
1. GLUCOGENIC
They follow CHO pathways in
metabolism.
2. KETOGENIC
They are converted to ketone bodies
like acetate
3. ACIDIC, BASIC or NEUTRAL
Depends on pH reactions.
D. ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE AND
SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF AMINO ACIDS
1. FIBROUS PROTEIN
Long coiled or folded chains of AA
bound together in parallel line.
Ex. Keratin nails, hair
Collagen connective tissue
Fibrin for blood clotting
Myosin In muscles
Elastin For the elasticity of blood
vessels
2. GLOBULAR PROTEIN
Its structure are coiled and lightly
wounded and is relatively soluble in
water.
Ex. Casein milk, cheese
Albumin egg white and milk
Globulin - RBC
E. ACCORDING TO AMINO ACID CONTENT OF
PROTEIN
1. COMPLETE PROTEIN
Contains all the essential amino acids in
amounts sufficient for growth and
maintenance of life. Animal protein are
complete protein and have a high

12
biological value.
Ex. Casein, albumin
2. PARTIALLY COMPLETE PROTEIN
Are proteins that can maintain life but to
do not support growth.
Ex. Gliadin in wheat
Legumin in legumes
3. INCOMPLETE PROTEIN
Proteins that cannot support life and
growth. The last two groups found in
plant protein have low biological value.
Ex. Zein corn, gelatin, plant protein
FUNCTIONS
1. Body building or structural role
a. Lays down the matrix of the protein collagen,
a basic substance that gives from to a structure
b. Repairing
c. Replacement
2. Source of energy and glucose proteins
provides 4kcal/gm
3. Regulator of body process
a. enzymes facilitates chemical reaction
b. hormones Insulin
c. helps maintain fluid balance.

d. acid base balance maintains the acid

base balance of blood and body fluids

e. as antibodies Giant CHON molecules

designed specifically to combat antigens
IMPLICATION: Without sufficient protein, the
body cannot maintain its army of antibobodies
to resist infectios diseases.

An antibody (AB), also known as an

immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large Y-shape protein
produced by plasma cells that is used by the
immune system to identify and neutralize
foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses.
The antibody recognizes a unique part of the
foreign target, called an antigen.Each tip of the
"Y" of an antibody contains a paratope (a

13
structure analogous to a lock) that is specific
for one particular epitope (similarly analogous
to a key) on an antigen, allowing these two
structures to bind together with precision.
Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can
tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by
other parts of the immune system, or can
neutralize its target directly (for example, by
blocking a part of a microbe that is essential for
its invasion and survival). The production of
antibodies is the main function of the humoral
immune system.
f. as transporter
o Hemoglobin carries oxygen from the
lungs to cells
o Lipoprotein transport lipids around
the body
o Special transport protein
FERITIN captures ion that are
digested and absorbed, will not release
the iron unless the body needs it.
TRANSFERRIN carrier protein of iron
which transport iron to different parts of
the body.
4. Other roles
a. for blood clotting
FIBRIN a stringy, insoluble mass of protein
fibers that forms a clot from liquid blood.
b. for vision
OPSIN a protein molecule; it is a light
sensitive pigment in the cells of the retina
which responds to light by changing its shape
thus initializing the nerve impulses that convey
the sense of sight to the brain.
1. Animal protein (meat,
SOURCE
fish, poultry and products
derived from it.
2. Plants protein
(Vegetables, legumesbeans, peas
FLOWCHART OF DIGESTION AND
ABSORPTION OF FOODSTUFFS(CHON)

WAYS OF IMPROVING PROTEIN QUALITY IN

FOODS:

14
A. FORTIFICATION refers to the addition of
amino acids that were either not originally
presents or present in significant amounts.
2. ENRICHMENT the addition of amino acids
that were lost during processing so that food
will meet a specified standard.
3. SUPPLEMENTATION Refers to addition of
protein rich foods to regular diet so as to
increase dietary intake or total protein content
and improve its standard.
4. COMPLEMENTATION Two or more proteins
whose amino acids complement each other in
such a way that the essential amino acids
missing from one are supplied by the other.
RDA: Weight in kg = 0.8
RECOMMENDED
g/kg body weight
INTAKES
10 15 % of TER
HEALTH EFFECTS AND OTHER HEALTH
RELATED CONCERNS INVOLVING PROTEIN
1. PROTEIN ENERGY MALINUTRITION (PEM)
A deficiency of CHON, calorie or both,
including marasmus, kwashiorkor and
instances in which they overlap.
TYPES
A. Kwashiorkor protein
malnutrition predominant
B. Marasmus deficiency in
calorie intake
C. Marasmic Kwashiorkor
marked protein deficiency and
marked calorie insufficiency
signs present, sometimes
referred to as the most severe
form of malnutrition
A. KWASHIORKOR
Originally a Chnaian
word meaning the evil
spirit that infects the
first child when the
second child is born
Reflects a sudden and
recent deprivation of
food.
EFFECTS:
o Loss of weight
and body fat
o Edema
o Prone to
infection
B. MARASMUS
Name from a Greek
word meaning dying
away
Reflects severe
deprivation of food over
a long time (Chronic
PEM), and is therefore
caused by an
inadequate energy and
protein (and by
inadequate essential
fatty acids, vitamins
and minerals as well.
EFFECTS:
o Muscles and
hearts weakens

15
Impaired brain
development
and learning
ability
o Reduced
synthesis of
hormones which
slows down
metabolism and
lowers body
temperature.
o Growth ceases
MARASMUS
Affects infants and
children less than 2
years old
Caused by severe
deprivation impaired
absorption of protein
Develops slowly; chronic
PEM
With severe weight loss
Severe muscle and fat
wasting
No edema detected
No fatty liver
Anxious, apathetic
Hair is sparse, thin and
dry, easily pulled out.
Skin is dry and easily
wringkles
o

KWASHIORKOR
Affects older
o
infants and young
children
o Caused by
o
inadequate
protein intake or
more commonly o
infection
o
o Rapid onset;
o
acute PEM
o With some weight
o
loss
o
o With some
muscle wasting, o
with retention of o
some body fat
o
o With edema
o With enlarge fatty
liver
o Irritable and sad
o Hair is dry, brittle,
easily pulled out,
hair loses its color
o Skin patchy &
scaly, often with
sores that fail to
heal
2. PHENYLKETONURIA
A rare hereditary disease in newborn in
which the enzyme that processes the
amino acid phenylalanine hydroxylase,
is detective or missing, leading to
accumulation of phenylalanine in the
blood.
Increase phenylalanine in the blood
Destroys the childs CNS causing
irreversible brain damage or mental
retardation, tremors and seizure.
3. NITROGEN BALABCE
An index of the amount of protein
utilized by the body.
Nitrogen intake should be equal to
nitrogen output.
Zero nitrogen balance
The body degrades more
CHON than it synthesize.
(-) NITROGEN
The body loses nitrogen
BALANCE
as it breaks down muscle
and other body protein
for energy.
Starvation, burn, injuries,
infections, fever.
o

16

(+) NITROGEN
BALANCE

The body synthesize

more than it degrades.
The body retains protein
in new cells as blood,
bone, skin, muscle cells
are added to the body.
Growing infants and
children
Pregnant individuals
People recovering from
CHON deprivation or
illness

FLOWCHART OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOODSTUFFS(CHON)

17

Proteins are crushed and moistened in the mouth, but the real action begins in the stomach.
The major event in the stomach is the partial breakdown (hydrolysis) of proteins. Hydrochloric acid
uncoils (denatures) each proteins tangled strands so that digestive enzymes can attack the peptide
bonds. The hydrochloric acid also converts the inactive form of the enzyme pepsinogen to its active
form, pepsin.* Pepsin cleaves proteinslarge polypeptidesinto smaller polypeptides and some
amino acids.

When polypeptides enter the small intestine, several pancreatic and intestinal proteases hydrolyze
them further into short peptide chains, tripeptides, dipeptides, and amino acids.** Then peptidase
enzymes on the membrane surfaces of the intestinal cells split most of the dipeptides and
tripeptides into single amino acids. Only a few peptides escape digestion and enter the blood intact.

18

19

Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from noncarbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, andglucogenic amino acids. of glucose
from non-CHO sources such as amino acids.

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HEALTH EFFECTS AND OTHER HEALTH RELATED CONCERNS INVOLVING PROTEIN

PEM lack both protein and energy-rich foods.
Children who lack sufficient protein do not grow to their potential size.
Infants born to mothers eating insufficient protein during pregnancy can have permanently
impaired mental capacities.
MARASMUS
A condition resulting from severe malnutrition, afflicts very young children who lack both energy
and protein foods as well as vitamins and minerals
Severe wasting caused by lack of protein and all nutrients or faulty absorption;
Appears EMACIATED but does not have EDEMA.
Hair is dull and dry, and the skin is thin and wrinkled
KWASHIORKOR
Deficiency disease caused by extreme lack of protein.
Appears when there is a sudden or recent lack of protein-containing food (such as during a famine).
This disease causes fat to accumulate in the liver, and the lack of protein and hormones results in
edema, painful skin lesions, and changes in the pigmentation of skin and hair.
The mortality rate for kwashiorkor patients is high.

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FATS AND OTHER LIPIDS

Lipos
A family of organic compounds that
includes triglycerides (Fats and Oils),
phospholipids and sterols.
Its a greasy, waxy substance that in
their pure state, are normally tasteless,
colourless and odourless. They are
lighter and insoluble in it, they are
slightly soluble in alcohol and are
readily dissolved in fat solvents like
chloroform, ether and benzene.
It is composed of CARBON, HYDROGEN,
& OXYGEN. Although the proportions of
oxygen to carbon and hydrogen is lower.
Because fats have less oxygen, they
provide more than double the amount
of calories than the same amount of
CHO.
Most concentrated form of energy
Contains 9 calories per gram fat
It is recommended 15-25% fat in the
diet
The basic unit of fat is called
TRIGLYCERIDE, which consist of
molecule of glycerol attached to the 3
fatty acids
FUNCTIONS & FOOD SOURCES
*Fat-rich foods are generally more
expensive than carbohydrate-rich foods.
Like carbohydrates, fats are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but with a

substantially lower proportion of oxygen.

* Fats are present in both animal and
plant foods. The animal foods that
provide the richest sources of fats are
meats, especially fatty meats such as
1) Important source of calories to provide
a continuous supply if energy.
2) Protein sparing
3) Maintain the constant blood
temperature
4) Cushions vital organs such as kidney
against injury

22
5) Facilitates the absorption of fat soluble

vitamins (ADEK)
6) Provides satiety and delays onset on
hunger.
7) Contributes flavor and palatability to
the diet

VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE FATS IN FOOD

visible fats
fats in foods that are purchased
and used as fats, such as butter or
margarine
invisible fats
fats that are not immediately
noticeable such as those in egg
yolk, cheese, cream, and salad
dressings

CLASSIFICATIONS:
I. TRIGLYCERIDES
are composed of three (tri) fatty
acids attached to a framework of
glycerol
Its structural unit is 1 molecule of
glycerol joined to 3 fatty acid
chain.
Glycerol is derived from a water-soluble
carbohydrate.
Fatty acids are organic compounds of
carbon
atoms to which hydrogen atoms are
attached.
Most lipids in the body (95%) are
triglycerides.

23
FATTY ACIDS
THEY ARE CLASSIFIED:
1. Essential
are necessary fats hat humans
cannot synthesize; EFAs must be
obtained through diet.
Are long-chain polyunsaturated
fatty acids derived from linoleic,
linolenic, and oleic acids.
FAMILIES:
a. omega-3
b. omega-6.
2. Nonessential
Some non-essential fatty acids are
actually important for the body.
Saturated fats are considered to be
non-essential fatty acids because
they are not required by the body
and instead may cause harm.

3 Forms Fatty Acids

1) SATURATED FATS
Shown to RAISE BLOOD CHOLESTEROL.
Considered the MOST DANGEROUS
type of fat that lead to raise blood
cholesterol may lead to coronary heart
disease
Difficult to metabolize causing weight
gain
Sources: butter, lart, cheese, coconut oil,
chocolate, cakes, cookies, meat, poultry, egg
yolks, whole milk, whole milk cheeses, cream,
ice cream, and butter.
It is recommended that one consume no
more than 7% of total daily calories as
saturated fats.
Foods containing a high proportion of
saturated fats are usually solid at room
temperature.
2) MONOUNSATURATED FATS
1) lower level of bad cholesterol.
2) It is recommended that one consume
15% of total daily calories as
monounsaturated fats.
3) Thought to play little part in
atherosclerosis.
4) Sources: Vegetable oil, peanut, soybean,
corn, olive oil, canola oil
5) Oils that contain monounsaturated fats
are typically liquid at room temperature
but start to turn solid when chilled.
6) Oils rich in monounsaturated fats also
contribute vitamin E to the diet, an
antioxidant .
7) Research indicates that
monounsaturated fats lower the amount
of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (bad
cholesterol) in the blood, but only when
they replace saturated fats in ones
diet
3) POLYUNSATURATED FATS
LOWER LEVELS OF TOTAL
CHOLESTEROL
IT SHOULD NOT EXCEED 8% OF TOTAL

24
DAILY CALORIES.
Can help reduce bad cholesterol levels in your
blood which can lower your risk of heart
disease and stroke
Oils rich in polyunsaturated fats also
provide essential fats that your body
needs but cant produce itself such as
omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. You
must get essential fats through
food. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids
are IMPORTANT FOR MANY FUNCTIONS
IN THE BODY.
CLASSES OF POYUNSATURATED FATS
1) Omega 3
have a positive effect on reducing
mortality from cardiovascular disease.
Reduced blood clotting tendency and
reduced blood pressure.
2) Omega 6
Linoleic acid polyunsaturated fatty
acid.
lowers cholesterol levels in the blood
and helps in the prevention of heart
disease.
SOURCES OF POLYUNSATURATED FATS : corn,
sesame, soybean, sunflower oil, seeds, nuts,
dark green vegetables.

TRANS-FATTY ACID
Produced by adding hydrogen atoms to
a liquid fat, making it solid.
TFAs raise LDLs and total cholesterol.
10 Foods High Transfats:
1. Spreads mayonnaise, margarine, butter
2. Package foods cake mixes, biscuits
3. Soups noodle soups
4. Fast foods Mcdonalds, Kentucky Fried
Chicken
5. Frozen foods frozen pies, pizza, breaded
fish sticks, breaded chicken
6. Baked goods cupcakes
7. Cookies & cakes
8. Donuts
9. Cream Filled cookies
10. Chips & Crackers
II. PHOSPOLIPIDS
Is a group of compound fats that are
similar to Triglycerides.

25

They contain glycerol molecule but only

two fatty acid chains.
It is naturally occurring in almost foods,
including eggs, peanuts and liver.

Roles of Phospholipids
Lecithin
are constituents of cell membranes.
Because phospholipids are soluble in
both water and fat, they can help fatsoluble substances, including vitamins
and hormones, to pass easily in and out
of cells.
Phospholipids also act as emulsifiers in
the body, helping to keep fats
suspended in the blood and body fluids
III. CHOLESTEROL(STEROL)
is a common constituent (part) of ones
daily diet because it is found so
abundantly in egg yolk, fatty meats,
shellfish, butter, cream, cheese, whole
milk, and organ meats (liver, kidneys,
brains, sweetbreads).
Is thought to be a contributing factor in
heart disease because high serum
cholesterol, also called
hypercholesterolemia, is common in
clients with atherosclerosis.
A reduction in the amount of total fat,
saturated fats, and cholesterol and an
increase in the amounts of
monounsaturated fats in the diet,
weight loss, and exercise all help
The body manufactures 800 to 1,000
mg of cholesterol a day in the liver.
It is considered advisable that blood
cholesterol levels not exceed
200 mg/dl (200 milligrams of
cholesterol per 1 deciliter of blood).
It is also a precursor of the steroid
hormones.

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND

TRANSPORT
OF LIPIDS

(lingual lipase) that plays an active role

26
in fat digestion in infants, but a
relatively minor role in adults.