ABSTRACT

This module is the second part of our lecture

about carbohydrates. It will tackle about
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Disaccharides are composed of two sugar
molecules and polysaccharides are composed
of many sugar monomers linked together.
Polysaccharides are the most abundant
carbohydrate found in food. Starch is an
example of polysaccharides in plants.
Potatoes and grains are major sources of
starch in the human diet. Likewise, glycogen is
an example of polysaccharides in animals.
Animals store excess sugar in the form of
glycogen.

https://www.livescience.com/
Prof. Minda Aquino
3505-chemistry-life-human- MC 2 Biochemistry
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MODULE 2.2
Bioorganic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Title: Module 2.2
Bioorganic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Overview:
This module is the second part of our lecture about carbohydrates. It will tackle about
disaccharides and polysaccharides. Disaccharides are composed of two sugar molecules and
polysaccharides are composed of many sugar monomers linked together.
Polysaccharides are the most abundant carbohydrate found in food. Starch is an
example of polysaccharides in plants. Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the
human diet. Likewise, glycogen is an example of polysaccharides in animals. Animals store
excess sugar in the form of glycogen.

Learning Outcome:
1. Describe the characteristics of carbohydrates in living organisms.
2. Classify carbohydrates according to:
a. The number of sugar units
b. The number of carbon atoms
c. The functional group/s present
3. Give the composition and functions of common monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
4. Explain the physical and chemical properties of carbohydrates based on its structure.

Objectives:
At the end of the module the students shall be able to:
1. Describe disaccharides and polysaccharides;
2. Identify structures of common disaccharides;
3. Illustrate and identify linkages of 2 sugar monomers;
4. Enumerate and describe common polysaccharides.

Reference:
Bettelheim, F.A., Brown, W.H., and Campbell, M.K. () Introduction to Organic and Biochemistry,
6th ed.,
**images taken from google

1|Module 2
DISACCHARIDES
- Compounds consisting of two monosaccharides subunits hooked together by acetal
linkage.
- Example:
1. Maltose – contain D subunit glucose hooked by an acetal linkage between C1
of one sugar and C4 of the other, hence the linkage is an 𝛼-1,4-glycosidic
linkage.

What is an acetal linkage?

- The product formed when one equivalent alcohol is added to an aldehyde is called
hemiacetal. But when the product formed from a second equivalent of alcohol is
added, it is called an acetal.
Illustration of Equation:
1. For aldehyde

Aldehyde Hemiacetal An Acetal

2. For Ketone

A Ketone An Hemiketal A Ketal

In the first step of acetal or ketal formation, the acid protonates the carbonyl oxygen
making the carbonyl C more susceptible to nucleophilic attack.

2. Cellobiose – is another disaccharide that contains 2D-glucose subunits. It

differs from maltose in that the 2 glucose subunits are hooked together by a 𝛽
– 1,4 glycosidic linkage.
Like maltose, cellobiose exists in both 𝛼 and 𝛽 forms.

3. Lactose – is a disaccharide found in milk. It constitutes 4.5% of cows milk by

weight and 6.5% of human milk. One of the subunits of lactose is D-galactose
and the other unit is glucose. The D-galactose is an acetal and the D-glucose
subunit is a hemiacetal. The subunits are joined by a 𝛽-1,4-glycosidic linkage.

2|Module 2
 Illustration:

CHEMICAL CONNECTION: Lactose Intolerance

- Lactase is an enzyme that specifically breaks the
glycosidic linkage in lactose. Cats/dogs lose their
intestinal lactase when they become adults. They
can no longer digest lactose. Consequently, when
they are fed with milk and milk products, the
undegraded lactose causes digestive problems such
as bloating, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
- These problems occur because only
monosaccharides can pass into the bloodstream so
lactose has to pass undigested into the large
intestine.
- When humans have stomach flu or other intestinal
disturbances, they temporarily lose their lactase
thereby becoming lactose intolerant. Some humans
lose their lactase permanently as they mature.

4. Sucrose (Table sugar) – this is obtained from sugar beets and sugar cane.
Sucrose consists of a D-glucose subunit and a D-fructose subunit linked by a
glycosidic bond between C1 of glucose and C2 of fructose in the 𝛽 position.
When sucrose is hydrolyzed, a 1:1 mixture of glucose is called an invert
sugar.

3|Module 2
 Illustration:

POLYSACCHARIDES
- Contain as few as 10 or as many to several thousand monosaccharide units joined
together by glycosidic linkages. The most common polysaccharides are:

1. Starches
- is the major component of flour, potatoes, rice and corn. It is a mixture
of two polysaccharides, amylose (20%) and amylopectin (80%).
- Amylose and amylopectin are both made up of long units of glucose,
subunits joined by 𝛼 1,4-glycosodic bonds.
- Amylopectin may contain as many units of 10,000 D-glucose.
5. Glycogen
- Act as the energy reserve carbohydrates in animals. Like other
disaccharides, there are approximately 108 glucose units joined by 1,4-
glycosidic and 𝛼 1,6-glycosidic bonds.
- Is a reserved animal starch in the liver from excess glucose after
digestive absorption.
6. Cellulose
- It is the plant cell skeletal polysaccharide made up of linear
polysaccharide of D-glucose units joined by 𝛽 1,4-glycosidic bond
having an average weight of 400,000 g/mol or approximately 2,200
glucose units per molecule.
- They act as stiff rods, insoluble fibers with high mechanical strength.
They act as dietary roughage in the intestine to remove undigested
materials in the body.
- Humans and other animals cannot use cellulose as food because the
digestive system don not contain 𝛽 glucosidases, an enzyme that
catalyses the hydrolysis of 𝛽-glycosidic bond.
- Ruminants or the cud chewing animals can digest grasses and hays
because they contain and have 𝛽 glucosidase in their alimentary canal.

4|Module 2
 However, termites use bacteria in their intestines because they use
wood as their principal food.
7. Dextrin
- The brown part of bread chiefly made up of glucose subunits in an 𝛼
1,4-glycosidic bond. During the process of digestion, dextrin need only a
few steps thru enzymatic action to produce subunits of glucose.
8. Heparin
- Is a heterogenous mixture of sulfonated polysaccharide chains ranging
in molecular weight from 6,000 to 30,000 g/mol.
- This acidic polysaccharide is synthesized and stored in mast cells of
various tissues particularly the liver, lungs, and gut.
- It has many biological functions; the best is its ability as an
anticoagulant activity. It binds strongly to antithrombin III, a plasma
protein involved in terminating the clotting process of blood.

Now, click the link and watch some videos related to the
topic.
Disaccharide
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kk4Bck7WHpA
Disaccharides - Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose – Carbohydrates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMD-gGsuGRc
Polysaccharides - Starch, Amylose, Amylopectin, Glycogen,
& Cellulose – Carbohydrates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1HMMYCqZonU

Study your lesson for now, exercise will be posted in your

classroom. Your instructor will update you on this.
All the best.

5|Module 2