CARBOHYDRATES

OVERVIEW:
Dietary carbohydrates include starch, sucrose, lactose, and indigestible fibers. The major product
of the digestion of carbohydrates is glucose, but some Galactose and fructose are also produced.

Glucose  – is a major fuel source that is oxidized by cells for energy. After a meal, it is converted
to glycogen or to TAG. Also converted to compounds such as; proteoglycans, glycoprotein, and
glycolipids.
Fructose and Galactose – are converted to intermediates in the pathways by which the glucose is
metabolized.
Glycogen – is the major storage form of CHO in animals. The largest stores are in muscle and
liver:
            *Muscle Glycogen – used to generate ATP for muscle contraction.
            *LiverbGlycogen - used to maintain blood glucose during fasting or exercise.
The maintenance of blood glucose is a major function of the liver.

CARBOHYDRATES - This is the staff of life for most organisms and the most abundant
compound found in nature.
Cellulose - is the most abundant carbohydrate and is found in the woody structures and fibers of
plants.

TWO MAJOR BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF CHO:

1. as storage forms of fuel
·       1 g of CHO when oxidized will yield 4Kcal of energy
·       Glucose is the major source of energy in our body
·       Starch is the chief storage form of CHO in most plant
·       Glycogen is the chief storage form of CHO in animals

2. as structural elements
·       Cellulose is the main structural component of the rigid cell wall
-       Acid mucopolysaccharides and proteoglycans are important structural polysaccharides in
animal tissue.

OTHER FUNCTIONS OF CHO:

·       Acts as a lubricant of skeletal joints
·       Major components of the cell wall of bacteria.
-       They provide adhesion between cells.
·       They confer biological specificity on the surface of animal cells.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHO:
CHO may be classified depending on the number of sugar units they contain as:
I: Simple Sugar / Monosaccharide
- Contain a single polyhdroxyl aldehyde or ketone unit
- They are those that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler form.
- They have the empirical formula of CnH2nOn
- These sugars contain 2-10 carbon atoms.
- The names of the sugars end with “ose”

SEVERAL METHODS OF NAMING THESE SUGARS:

1. According to the # of carbon atoms:
                        Triose – contains 3 carbon atoms (glyceraldehyde)
                        Tetrose – 4 c.a. (erythrose)
                        Pentose – 5 c.a. (ribose)
                        Hexose – 6 c.a. (glucose)
2. According to the functional group they contain:
                       Aldoses – those that contain the aldehyde group (mannose, Galactose)
                       Ketoses – those that contain a ketone group (fructose)
3. Combination of 1st and 2nd methods: aldotriose, ketopentose…
4. According to the ring structure: furanose (5-membered ring), pyranose (6-membered ring).

IMPORTANT DERIVATIVES OF MONO:

1. Amino sugars
Two amino sugars that are widely distributed in plants and animals:
      * Glucosamine → product of hydrolysis of chitin – the major polysaccharides of the shell of
insects and crustaceans.
      * Galactosamine → found in the characteristic polysaccharides of cartilage and chondroitin
sulfates.

2. Sialic acid -  They are actually a family of compounds that contain 9 carbon atoms and are
acetylated derivatives of neuraminic acid.
Ex: N-acetylneuraminic acid – is an important building block of the oligosaccharide chains found
in the glycoprotein and glycolipids of the cell coats and membranes of animal tissue.

3. N-acetylmuramic acid -  They are the major building block of the polysaccharides backbone of
the bacterial cell walls.

II: Compound Sugars /Oligosaccharides

- Contains from 2-10 sugar units.
- Empirical formula: Cn(HnO)n

Disaccharides  – are the most important oligosaccharides. These are sugars that can be
hydrolyzed into 2 monosaccharides
Ex:
      Glucose + glucose = maltose
      Glucose + Galactose = lactose
      Glucose + fructose = sucrose

MALTOSE
- east sweet sugars
- malt sugars
- Contained two D-glucose residues joined by a glycosidic linkage between carbon atom 1 (the
anomeric carbon) of the 1st glucose residue and carbon atom 4 of the 2nd glucose.
- Systemic name: O-D glucopyranosyl and β-D glucopyranose.

Characteristics:
- composed of 2 glucose units linked by a 1:4 glycosidic bond
- exhibit mutarotation, because of the free anomeric carbon
- can react with excess phenyl hydrazine to form maltosazone crystals
- can be formed through enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
- it is a glucose-glucoside
- repeating disaccharide units of starch and glycogen.

LACTOSE
- Formed by the mammary gland and occurs to the extent of about 5% in milk.
- On hydrolysis, yields D-galactose and D-glucose.

Characteristics:
- a reducing disaccharide, because of the potential free carbonyl group
- exhibit mutarotation, therefore it exists α-β anomers
- It is dextrorotatory, it forms lactosazone with phenylhydrazine.

SUCROSE
- also called saccharose or cane sugars
-  ordinary table sugar
-  very soluble and very sweet
-  In contrast to maltose and lactose, sucrose contains no free anomeric carbon.

Characteristics:
-  because of the absence of free or potentially free anomeric carbon, sucrose is not a reducing
sugar
-  will give (-) result in Benedict’s test
-  does not exhibit mutarotation
-  Cannot form osazone crystals with seliwanoff’s test.

III: Polysaccharides
-  these groups contain more than 10 sugar units
-  empirical formula: (C6H10O5)X
Another term for polysaccharides is glycans. It is suggested that polysaccharides such as starch,
glycogen, and cellulose which are
made up of a single kind of monosaccharide called “HOMOGLYCANS” and polysaccharides are
composed of 2 or more kinds of monosaccharides such as mucopolysaccharides be
called “HETEROGLYCANS”.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYSACCHARIDES:
1.  HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES (HOMOGLYCANS) -  contain only 1 type of sugar unit.
Glucosans – are the most important of the single polysaccharide.

Ex:
STARCH. The most important food source of CHO.
It contains 2 types of glucose polymers:
   * Amylose – constitute 15-20% of starch. It forms a helical structure responsible for the blue-
black color with iodine
   * Amylopectin – constitute 80-85% of starch.
Enzymes that hydrolyze starch are called:
   * α amylase – animal origin and it is found in the GIT, especially in the saliva (ptyalin) and
pancreatic juice (amylopsin)
   * β amylase – a plant origin.

DEXTRIN. When starch is partially hydrolyzed by the action of acid or enzyme, it is broken down
to# of products of lower molecular weight known as dextrins.
DEXTRAN. Important in medicine, because of its use as a plasma expander or substitute in the
treatment of hypovolemic shock.
GLYCOGEN. This is the form in which CHO is stored in animal organisms, thus it is called animal
starch.
CELLULOSE. The chief constituent of the fibrous parts of plants and it helps in the formation of
normal stool. It also relieves constipation if taken moderate amount.
INULIN. Used in testing kidney function and in other studies of renal physiology.

2.  HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES (HETEROGLYCANS) - Contains more than 1 type of sugar unit.

Acid Mucopolysaccharides (glycosaminoglycans) - A group of structural and protective
polysaccharides. They are called mucins or mucoproteins, also referred to as proteoglycans.

Ex:
HYALURONIC ACID. The most abundant acid mucopolysaccharides and present in cell coats and
in the extracellular ground substances of the connective tissues. It also occurs in the synovial
fluid in joints and vitreous humor of the eye.
CHONDROITIN SULFATES. It is the major structural component of cell coats, cartilage, bone,
cornea, skin, and other connective tissue.
HEPARIN. It is a very powerful inhibitor of blood clotting.
IV: Derived Carbohydrates - Derived by certain chemical reactions on sugars.
Ex:
OXIDATION PRODUCT – sugar acids
         *Glucuronic acid - it is important in detoxication reaction or conjugation reaction in our body.
          *Ascorbic acid or vitamin C - is one of the most important sugar acids. A derivative of
hexonic acid. Present in large amounts in
citrus fruits and tomatoes

REDUCTION PRODUCT – a sugar alcohol

          *Mannitol (mannose) - an osmotic diuresis - Is generally used for certain non-electrolyte
that are rapidly excreted and the presence of which in the urine leads to an increase in urine
volume. Has been employed in the management of the early phases of acute oliguria (↓ urine
volume). 
            *Galactitol (Galactose) - this substance is the cause of cataracts (opacity of the lens of the
eye) in infants suffering from galactosemia.

AMINO SUGARS     Ex:   Glucosamine and Galactosamine    

DEOXY SUGARS     Ex: D-2 deoxyribose