SCHOOL OF MEDICAL

LABORATORY SCIENCE CLINICAL CHEMISTRY 1 (LEC)

SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Mr. Fritdey Doctolero, RMT
AY 2022 – 2023 - 2ND SEMESTER MODULE NO.6/LESSON NO.6 – CARBOHYDRATES (PART 1)

OUTLINE
I. General Description of Carbohydrates a) Monosaccharides
II. Different Projections of Carbohydrates • contain just one sugar unit
III. Classification of Carbohydrates • Example:
A. Number of sugar units → Glucose
B. Size of the base carbon chain → Fructose
C. Location of functional group → Galactose
D. Stereochemistry of the compound
IV. Carbohydrate Metabolism b) Disaccharides
A. Absorption
V. Pathways in Glucose Metabolism • contain two sugar units bonded together
VI. Hormone Regulation • formed by the condensation reaction of two
monosaccharides
• bond between two monosaccharides is called a
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
glycosidic bond
• Carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar
CARBOHYDRATES
molecules by hydrolysis
• Most abundant organic molecules in nature • Example:
• Carbohydrates are the major food and energy source of → Maltose (glucose + glucose)
the body and are stored primarily in the two most → Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
important systems: → Lactose (glucose + galactose)
→ Liver and muscle glycogen
• Compounds containing C, H, and O Disaccharide Bond Found in
• Contain C=O (carbonyl), and -OH (hydroxide) functional groups Maltose α-1,4-glycosidic bond Malt sugar
Sucrose α-1,β-2-glycosidic bond Table sugar
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES Lactose β-1,4-glycosidic bond milk
• Major energy source – GLUCOSE
• The storage form of energy – GLYCOGEN
• Component of the cell membranes – GLYCOPROTEIN
• Structural components in plants, bacteria, and insect

DIFFERENT STRUCTURE OR PROJECTIONS OF

CARBOHYDRATES
1. Fischer projection
→ Shows linear structure

2. Haworth projection
→ Shows a cyclic structure as viewed from the
side showing the stereochemistry or location of
the attached molecules to the monosaccharide
ring
c) Oligosaccharides
3. Chair confirmation • Contain 2 to 10 sugar units

NOTE:
❖ All disaccharides are oligosaccharides
❖ NOT ALL oligosaccharides are disaccharides

d) Polysaccharides
• More than 10 units of sugar molecule
• Two Types: Homopolysaccharides and
Heteropolysaccharides

• Homopolysaccharide
→ A polysaccharide that contains the same type
of monosaccharides
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
The classification of carbohydrates is based on four different • Heteropolysaccharide
properties: → A polysaccharide that contains different types
of monosaccharides
A. NUMBER OF SUGAR UNITS

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE CLINICAL CHEMISTRY 1 (LEC)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Mr. Fritdey Doctolero, RMT
AY 2022 – 2023 - 2ND SEMESTER MODULE NO.6/LESSON NO.6 – CARBOHYDRATES (PART 1)

Homopolysaccharide Heteropolysaccharide D. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF THE COMPOUND

Starch Cellulose a) Isomers
Amylose Pectin • Compounds that have the same chemical formula,
Amylopectin Chitin but different spatial arrangement of atoms
Glycogen Heparin • Ex. glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose are all
isomers of one another because they have the same
formula C6H12O6

b) Epimers
• Isomers that differ in configuration around only one
specific carbon atom (except the carbonyl carbon)
• Examples:
→ glucose and galactose (differ only in position
of -OH in C4)
→ glucose and mannose (differ only in position
of -OH in C2)

B. SIZE OF THE BASE CARBON CHAIN

a) Trioses: 3 carbons
b) Tetroses: 4 carbons
c) Pentoses: 5 carbons
d) Hexoses: 6 carbons

C. LOCATION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP

a) Aldose
• Functional group is an aldehyde
• Carbonyl carbon at the end c) Enantiomers
• Examples: • Optical isomers or stereoisomers
→ glucose, galactose, mannose • Pairs of structures that are mirror images of each
other
• The enantiomers are designated as:
→ D - sugar (Dextrorotatory) - RIGHT
b) Ketose → L - sugar (Levorotatory) - LEFT
• Functional group is a ketone • D-sugars are more common
• Carbonyl carbon at any other position
• Example:
→ Fructose

o To determine whether you are going to use D or L, you need to

identify or locate first the PENULTIMATE CARBON.
▪ Penultimate carbon is the second to the last carbon or the
farthest chiral carbon from the carbonyl
o If the OH group of the penultimate carbon is on the RIGHT, it is a D –
SUGAR.
o If the OH group of the penultimate carbon is on the LEFT, it is L –
SUGAR

d) Anomers
• Cyclic monosaccharides or glucosides that are
epimers differing from each other in the configuration

• Furanose: Five membered rings

• Pyranose: Six membered rings

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE CLINICAL CHEMISTRY 1 (LEC)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Mr. Fritdey Doctolero, RMT
AY 2022 – 2023 - 2ND SEMESTER MODULE NO.6/LESSON NO.6 – CARBOHYDRATES (PART 1)

o Look for the ANOMERIC CARBON or the CARBON 1.

o Look for the HYDROXYL GROUP (-OH) on the anomeric carbon
• (-OH) is BELOW the anomeric carbon = α
• (-OH) is ABOVE the anomeric carbon = β

IV. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

V. PATHWAYS IN GLUCOSE METABOLISM

o Carbohydrates are first digested in the mouth by

salivary amylase. It then reaches the small intestine.
o Anaerobic Glycolysis – inadequate oxygen level, especially during
A. ABSORPTION exercise
• Only monosaccharides are absorbed
Glucose Pathways
Luminal side: Glycolysis Metabolism of glucose molecule to
• SGLT-1 (Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter) pyruvate or lactate for production of
energy
→ Secondary active transport
❖ It is secondary because the primary Gluconeogenesis Formation of glucose-6-phosphate from
active transport is in the sodium- noncarbohydrate sources
potassium pump Glycogenolysis Breakdown of glycogen to glucose for use
→ for glucose and galactose as energy
Glycogenesis Conversion of glucose to glycogen for
• GLUT-5 storage
→ Facilitates diffusion Lipogenesis Conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids
→ for fructose Lipolysis Decomposition of fat

Basolateral side: 2 terminologies:

• GLUT-2 • Well fed state - increased sugar level
→ Facilitates diffusion • Fasting state - decreased sugar level
→ ALL TYPES of Monosaccharides
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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE CLINICAL CHEMISTRY 1 (LEC)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Mr. Fritdey Doctolero, RMT
AY 2022 – 2023 - 2ND SEMESTER MODULE NO.6/LESSON NO.6 – CARBOHYDRATES (PART 1)

Role of the pancreas in glucose metabolism

• high glucose level (after eating)
→ Beta-cells of the pancreas stimulated to
release insulin into the blood
→ Body cells will take up more glucose and Liver
takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen
→ Blood glucose level declines to a set point;
stimulus for insulin release diminishes

• Low blood glucose (due to skipping a meal)

→ Alpha cells of the pancreas stimulated to
release glucagon into the blood
→ Liver breaks down glycogen and releases
glucose into the blood
→ Blood glucose level rises to set point; stimulus
for glucagon release diminishes

INSULIN
o Glucose→Pyruvate→Acetyl CoA→Krebs Cycle→Oxidative Description → Insulin is normally secreted by the beta
o 1 molecule of glucose = 36 atp cells (a type of islet cell) of the pancreas.
VI. HORMONE REGULATION
Stimulus → Hyperglycemia (high or elevated blood
• Brief fast
glucose level)
→ Did not take carbohydrates in less than a day
→ Glucose is supplied to the ECF from the liver Actions → Promotes glucose cellular entry
through glycogenolysis → Muscles and adipose tissues
→ Increases glycogenesis, lipogenesis,
• Fasting period longer than 1 day and glycolysis (metabolism of glucose as
→ Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrate a source of energy)
sources (gluconeogenesis) → Inhibits glycogenolysis
→ Decrease blood glucose level
Control of blood glucose is under 2 major hormones:
1. Insulin GLUCAGON
2. Glucagon Description → Produced in the Alpha-cells of islets of
Langerhans
Hormone Regulation
Insulin Glucagon Epinephrine Stimulus → during stress
Cortisol Growth Hormone ACTH → fasting states
Thyroxine Somatostatin Incretins
Actions → Enhances glycogenolysis (cause
Glucose Homeostasis breakdown of glycogen forming glucose)
and gluconeogenesis (formation of
glucose from another non-carbohydrate
source)
→ Increases blood glucose level

Pancreas

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 SCHOOL OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCE CLINICAL CHEMISTRY 1 (LEC)
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN
CAMPUS
Instructor’s Name: Mr. Fritdey Doctolero, RMT
AY 2022 – 2023 - 2ND SEMESTER MODULE NO.6/LESSON NO.6 – CARBOHYDRATES (PART 1)

Exocrine
• Enzyme: Amylase and Lipase

Endocrine
• 4 hormones from different cells in the Islets of
Langerhans:
→ Glucagon (alpha cells)
→ Insulin (Beta-cells)
→ Somatostatin (delta cells)
→ Pancreatic polypeptide (PP or F cells)

CELL HORMONE ACTION

alpha cells Glucagon Increases blood glucose level
Beta-cells Insulin Lowers blood glucose level
inhibits the release of growth
hormone and thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)

delta cells Somatostatin inhibits the release of pancreatic

hormones, including insulin

prevents blood glucose level

from increasing
Pancreatic Regulate the exocrine and
PP or F cells
Polypeptide endocrine of the pancreas
“hunger hormone”
Epsilon cells Ghrelin
Stimulate a person to become
hungry

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