BTE 101 Lecture 3.

1
Macromolecules-1
Dr. Munima Haque
BRAC University
 Types of biomolecules and their
function in cells

• Molecules containing Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and

• Oxygen.
•  All are polymers
•  All are organic (C) compounds
•  They make up living organisms
•  Examples: Glucose (C6H12O6)
 Biomolecules

Organic Chemistry
• The element carbon is a
component of almost all
biological molecules.
• Carbon has four
electrons in its outermost
energy level.
• One carbon atom can
form four covalent bonds
with other atoms.
 Biomolecules

Macromolecules

• Carbon atoms can be joined to form carbon

molecules.
• Large molecules that are formed by joining
smaller organic molecules together are called
macromolecules.
• Polymers are molecules made from repeating
units of identical or nearly identical compounds
linked together by a series of covalent bonds.
 Biomolecules
Carbon Compounds

• Carbon compounds can be in the shape of straight

chains, branched chains, and rings.
• Together carbon compounds lead to the diversity of life
on Earth.
 Biomolecules

Most of the large molecules in living things are

macromolecules called polymers

Polymers are long chains of smaller molecular units called

monomers (building blocks)

A huge number of different polymers can be made from a

small number of monomers

SIZE: monomer<polymer<macromolecule

(poly ~ many ; mono ~ one)

 Isomers

Molecules that have the same simple chemical

formula but have different structural formula are
called Isomers
(both have the chemical formula C6H12O6)
Carbon can form immensely
diverse compounds, from
simple to complex.

Methane with 1 Carbon DNA with tens of Billions of

atom Carbon atoms
 Polymers and Monomers
• Each of these types of molecules are
polymers that are assembled from single
units called monomers.
• Each type of macromolecule is an
assemblage of a different type of monomer.
 Monomers
Macromolecule Monomer
Carbohydrates Monosaccharide

Lipids Not always polymers;

Hydrocarbon chains
Proteins Amino acids

Nucleic acids Nucleotides

How do monomers form
polymers?

• In condensation reactions (also called

dehydration synthesis), a molecule of water is
removed from two monomers as they are
connected together.
 Making and Breaking of POLYMERS
Biomolecules
Cells link monomers to form polymers by
dehydration synthesis (building up); also called
condensation reaction
Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Removal
of
water
molecule

Longer polymer
 Making and Breaking of POLYMERS
Biomolecules
Polymers are broken down to monomers by the
reverse process, hydrolysis
(hydro ~ add water; lysis ~ to split)

Addition of
water molecule
 Biomolecules

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YO244P1e9QM
Biomolecules Video
 Biomolecules
Biological Macromolecules
Group Examples Function
Carbohydrates Pasta, breads &  Stores energy
grains  Provides structural support

Lipids Beeswax, fat & oils  Stores energy

 Provides steroids
 Waterproofs coatings

Proteins Hemoglobin  Transport substances

and Amylase  Speeds reactions
 Provides structural support
 Provides hormones
Nucleic Acids DNA stores genetic  Stores and communicates genetic
info in the cell’s information
nucleus
Carbohydrate
 Carbohydrates
• Used for fuel, building materials, and receptors.
• Made of C,H,O
• General formula is CH2O
• C:O ratio is 1:1

Simple sugars:
• Monosaccharide
• Disaccharides

Complex sugars
• Polysaccharides

• Account for less than 1% of body weight

• Serve as structural purposes
Made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen always in a 1:2:1 ratio (e.g. glucose,
C6H12O6)
Carbohydrates are the key source of energy used by living things.
The building blocks of carbohydrates are sugars, such as glucose and
 Carbohydrates
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
with a ratio of about two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom for every carbon
atom.
 The structure of carbohydrates

The monomer (building block) of a

carbohydrate is a simple sugar
called a monosaccharide (i.e.
glucose, fructose) are the fuels for
cellular work

*(Mono ~ one; sacchar ~ sugar)

 Types Of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides

• Mono - single
• Saccharide - sugar
• Simple sugars.
• 3 to 7 carbons.
• Can be in linear or
ring forms.
• Can be “Aldoses” or
“Ketoses”
depending on the
location of the
carbonyl group.
Monosaccharides can join to form disaccharides*,
such as sucrose (table sugar) and maltose
(brewing sugar)
*di ~ two; sacchar ~ sugar
Disaccharides: Sugar formed by joining two monosaccharides
through a “glycosidic linkage”.
 Simple Sugars:
Disaccharides

Disaccharide
 “Two” “Sugars”
 Examples:
 Table sugar = Glucose + Fructose
 Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
 Lactose = galactose + Glucose

https://food.ndtv.com
 Examples

• Maltose = glucose + glucose

• Lactose = glucose + galactose
• Sucrose = glucose + fructose
 Oligosaccharides

• 2 - 10 joined simple sugars.

• Used in cell membranes.
Polysaccharide

• “many sugars” Complex Sugar: polymer

• any molecule made up of several
repeating units.
Starch = energy storage in plants
Glycogen = energy storage in animals
Cellulose = plant cell wall

All are long strings of glucose molecules

Difference lies in how they are bonded
together

Functions:
Cells use them for energy and structure.
They allow organisms to gradually use
energy since it is stored in a large structure.
 How do two
monosaccharides combine
• to make a polysaccharide?
 Polysaccharides are long chains of
sugar units
polymers of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides
linked by dehydration synthesis
 Polysaccharides are long chains of
sugar units

Function as

Energy storage
Starch (plants)
Glycogen (animals)

Structure
Cellulose (plants cell walls)
Chitin ( insects)
 Chitin
Structural polysaccharide
Structural component of cell walls in fungi
Exoskeleton of invertebrates like insects, crustaceans like
crawfish, shrimp etc.
Suture material for surgery (breaks down as wound heals)
a glucose and b glucose
a glucose b glucose
 Starch
• Made of 1-4 linkages of a glucose.
• Linkage makes the molecule form a helix.
• Fuel storage in plants.
• thousands of glucoses (sugars) bonded
together

http://www.nutrientsreview.com/carbs/polysaccharides-starch.html
 Cellulose
• Made of 1-4 linkages of b glucose.
• Linkage makes the molecule form a straight
line.
• Used for structure in plant cell walls.

• Most organisms can digest starch (1- 4 a

linkage), but very few can digest cellulose (1-
4 b linkage).
• Another example of the link between structure
and function.
 Glycogen

• “Animal starch” Starch

• Similar to starch, but
has more 1-6
linkages or
branches.
• Found in the liver
and muscle cells.

Glycogen
Lipids
 Lipids
• Diverse hydrophobic molecules
• Made of C,H,O
• No general formula.
• C:O ratio is very high in C
• They are not true polymers
• They are grouped together because they do not mix with water
(Nonpolar)
• (i.e. fats, oils, waxes, steroids)
• Insoluble in water
• Serve as a long-term energy source
(get more energy from breakdown of fats than you do from
carbohydrates)
• Major component of cell membranes
• Function as insulation and protection (waxes and oils)
• Serve as chemical messengers (hormones such as steroids)
Lipids

 Naturally occurring organic

compounds
 Insoluble in water
 Soluble in ether, chloroform, acetone
& benzene
 Contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen
 The ratio of C:H is 1:2 (much less O)
 Contain other elements, phosphorous,
nitrogen, and sulfur
 Form essential structures in cells
 Are important energy stores
 Long-term energy storage
 Generally insoluble in water
 Structural components of cells
(phospholipids)
 Cellular messengers (hormones)
 Lipids
• Lipids are molecules that consist of long
hydrocarbon chains. Attaching the three
chains together is usually a glycerol molecule.
Lipids are NONpolar.
 Types of lipids

The types of lipids containing fatty acids are

 Waxes
 Fats and oils (triacylglycerols)
 Glycerophospholipids
 Prostaglandins
 Lipids include fats and oils
Fats and oils are lipids whose main function is
long term energy storage

Other functions:
Insulation in higher vertebrates
“shock absorber” for internal organs

Fatty acid

Fatty acid
 Fats and Oils
• Fats - solid at room temperature.
• Oils - liquid at room temperature.
• Differ in which fatty acids are used.
• Used for energy storage, cushions for organs,
insulation.
• Made of two kinds of smaller molecules.
– Fatty Acids
– Glycerol

https://ancientboost.com/blog/fats-and-oils-b32.html
 Fatty Acids

• A long carbon chain Acid Fat

(12-18 C) with a -
COOH (acid) on one
end and a -CH3 (fat)
at the other.
Neutral Fats or Triacylglycerols
• Three fatty acids joined to one glycerol.
• Joined by an “ester” linkage between the -
COOH of the fatty acid and the -OH of the
alcohol.
 Saturated Fats/Unsaturated Fats
• Unsaturated - one or more C=C bonds. Can accept more Hydrogens.
• Double bonds cause “kinks” in the molecule’s shape.
• fatty acids of unsaturated fats (plant oils) contain a double bond.
• These prevent them from solidifying at room temperature

• Saturated - no double bonds.

• They are solid at room temperature
 Saturated & Unsaturated fats

No double
bonds between
carbon and
carbon

One or more
double bonds
between carbon
and carbon
Lipids - Structure Of Lipids - Structure Of Fats - Triglycerides,
Phospholipids, Prostaglandins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ExVXeovB6s
 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fat

•
 Lipids: Triglycerides (Fats and Oils)

• Consist of 3 fatty acids

and glycerol
• Insulation
• Energy
• Protection
Structure of Lipids
Lipids: Steroids and Cholesterol

• All consist of a
complex ring structure
 Phospholipids
• Similar to fats but have only two fatty acids.
• The third -OH of glycerol is joined to a
phosphate containing molecule.

• Phospholipids have a hydrophobic tail, but a

hydrophilic head.
• Self-assembles into micells or bilayers, an
important part of cell membranes.
 Phospholipids

Partial exception to the

Polar hydrophobic (non-polar) lipid
Region rule

Have a polar region and a

nonpolar region on each
molecule

Compared to a Triglyceride
Phosphate group replaces 3rd
fatty acid
Nonpolar
Region
 Phospholipids
Major component of all cell membranes!
Phospholipids form a double layer in each cell membrane. The
polar heads are oriented towards the aqueous areas and the
nonpolar fatty acid tails form a nonpolar lipid barrier between the
inside and outside of the cell.

Thus, membranes have

two sides, each facing
the aqueous environment
inside and outside of the
cell.
 Steroids
• Lipids with four fused rings.
• Differ in the functional groups attached to the
rings.
• Examples:
– cholesterol
– sex hormones
 THE STEROIDS
Fused Rings
Found in all steroid compounds

Cholesterol:

Precursor in living organisms for:

sex hormones ( testosterone in male,
estrogen and progesterone in female)
Corticosteroids from adrenals
Vitamin D
Bile salts Important part of cell
membranes

Obtain in diet and make it

in the liver.

Anabolic steroids:
Testosterone mimics
 Videos

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJqfmuuxNXs
• Macromolecules-A Beginners Guide

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8WJ2KENlK0
• Biological Molecules - You Are What You Eat: Crash Course Biology #3

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5hhrDFo8Vk
• Macromolecules | Classes and Functions
 Dr. Munima Haque
ext.munima.haque@bracu.ac.bd