Term Meaning

A large, organic molecule such

Biological as carbohydrates, lipids,
macromolecule proteins, and nucleic acids.

A molecule that is a building

block for larger molecules
(polymers). For example, an
amino acid acts as the building
Monomer blocks for proteins.

A large molecule made of

repeating subunits
(monomers). For example, a
carbohydrate is a polymer that
is made of repeating
Polymer monosaccharides.

Types of biological macromolecules

Biological
macromolecule Building blocks Functions Examples

Provide Glucose,
Monosaccharides
cells with sucrose,
Carbohydrates (simple sugars)
quick/short- starch,
Biological
macromolecule Building blocks Functions Examples

term cellulose,
energy, chitin
source of
dietary fiber

Provide
cells with
long-term Fats,
energy, phospholipids,
make up waxes, oils,
Fatty acids and biological grease,
Lipids glycerol membranes steroids

Provide cell
structure,
send
chemical Keratin
signals, (found in hair
speed up and nails),
chemical hormones,
reactions, enzymes,
Proteins Amino acids etc antibodies

Store and
Nucleic acids Nucleotides DNA, RNA
pass on
Biological
macromolecule Building blocks Functions Examples

genetic
information

• Carbohydrates are biological molecules made of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of roughly one carbon atom to one water
molecule . This composition gives carbohydrates their name: they are
made up of carbon (carbo-) plus water (-hydrate). Carbohydrate chains
come in different lengths, and biologically important carbohydrates belong
to three categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
•

carbohydrates belong to three categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides,

and polysaccharides. In this article, we’ll learn more about each type of
carbohydrates, as well as the essential energetic and structural roles they
play in humans and other organisms.

Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sugar”) are

simple sugars, the most common of which is glucose. Monosaccharides
have a formula of ( CH2O) and they contain 3 to 7 carbon atoms

Example.
One important monosaccharide is glucose, a six-carbon sugar with the
formula C6H12O6. Other common monosaccharides include galactose
 (which forms part of lactose, the sugar found in milk) and fructose
(found in fruit).

Glucose, galactose, and fructose have the same chemical formula C6

H12O6, but they differ in the organization of their atoms, making
them isomers of one another. Fructose is a structural isomerof glucose
and galactose, meaning that its atoms are actually bonded together in a
different order.

Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides join

together via a dehydration reaction, also known as a condensation reaction or
dehydration synthesis. In this process, the hydroxyl group of one
monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another, releasing a molecule of
water and forming a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage.

EXAMPLE
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a
disaccharide consisting of glucose and galactose and is found naturally in
milk. Many people can't digest lactose as adults, resulting in lactose
intolerance (which you or your friends may be all too familiar with). Maltose, or
malt sugar, is a disaccharide made up of two glucose molecules. The most
common disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar), which is made of glucose and
fructos
Polysaccharides
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as
a polysaccharide (poly- = “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched
and may contain different types of monosaccharides. The molecular weight of a
polysaccharide can be quite high, reaching 100,000, daltons or more if enough
monomers are joined. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are some major
examples of polysaccharides important in living organisms.

Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of a mixture

of two polysaccharides, amylose and amylopectin (both polymers of glucose)

Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates.

Like starch, glycogen is a polymer of glucose monomers, and it is even more
highly branched than amylopectin.

Glycogen is usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose
levels decrease, glycogen is broken down via hydrolysis to release glucose
monomers that cells can absorb and use.

Function of carbohydrates:
1. Carbohydrates provides energy and regulation of blood glucose.
2. It will prevent the degradation of skeletal muscle and other tissues such
as the heart, liver, and kidneys.
3. It prevent the breakdown of proteins for energy.
4. Carbohydrates also help with fat metabolism. If the body has enough
denergy for its immediate needs, it stores extra energy as fat.
5. Carbohydrates are an important component of many industries like
textile, paper, lacquers and breweries.
6. Detoxification of physiological importance is carried out to some extent
with carbohydrate derivatives.
7. Agar is polysaccharide used in culture media, laxative and food.
8. Carbohydrates form a part of genetic material like DNA and RNA in the
form of deoxyribose and ribose sugars.
9. Hyaluronic acid found in between joints acts as synovial fluid and
provides frictionless movement.
10. They help make up the body mass by being included in all the
parts of the cell and tissues.
11. Adequate storage of hepatic glycogen helps in detoxifying a
normal liver.
12. They form components of bio-molecules which have a key role in
blood clotting, immunity, fertilization etc.
 13. Carbohydrates is basically the main fibre of the diet or provide the
bulk fibre for better digestion.
14. Carbohydrates help clear gut and prevent constipation.
15. Starch is the form the food is stored in plants.
16. It provides sweetness to foods.
17. Pectine and Hemiceliulose are the structural carbohydrate in plant
cell walls.
18. It plays important roles in cellular recognition processes.
19. Chitin forms the cell wall of fungi and the outer schelitone of
insects.
20. Murine is a structural carbohydrate in bacterial cell wall.

Lipids Definition
“Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen
atoms, which forms the framework for the structure and function of living
cells.”

What are Lipids?

These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in
nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water because water is polar molecules. In
the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are and
generally found in the oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods, and also in
some red meats.
Let us have a detailed look at the lipid structure, properties, types and
classification of lipids.
Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These
molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within
the human body. Listed below are some important characteristics of Lipids.

1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose

tissue of the body.
2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of
hydrocarbon chains.
3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for
different life processes.
4. Lipids are a class of compounds distinguished by their insolubility in
water and solubility in nonpolar solvents.
 5. Lipids are important in biological systems because they form the cell
membrane, a mechanical barrier that divides a cell from the external
environment.

Lipid Structure
Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar
hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. The lipid
structure is explained in the diagram below:

Lipid Structure – Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Classification of Lipids
Lipids can be classified into two major classes:

• Nonsaponifiable lipids, and

• Saponifiable lipids.

Nonsaponifiable Lipids
A nonsaponifiable lipid cannot be broken up into smaller molecules by
hydrolysis, which includes triglycerides, waxes, phospholipids, and
sphingolipids.
Saponifiable Lipids
A saponifiable lipid contains one or more ester groups allowing it to undergo
hydrolysis in the presence of an acid, base, or enzymes. Nonsaponifiable
lipids include steroids, prostaglandins, and terpenes.
Each of these categories can be further broken down into non-polar and polar
lipids.
Nonpolar lipids, such as triglycerides, are used for energy storage and fuel.
Polar lipids, which can form a barrier with an external water environment, are
used in membranes. Polar lipids include glycerophospholipids and
sphingolipids.
Fatty acids are important components of all of these lipids.

Types of Lipids
Within these two major classes of lipids, there are several specific types of
lipids important to live, including fatty acids, triglycerides,
glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and steroids. These are broadly
classified as simple lipids and complex lipids.

Simple Lipids
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.

1. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state.

2. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric

alcohols

Complex Lipids
Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and a fatty acid.

1. Phospholipids: Lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and alcohol,

a phosphoric acid residue. They frequently have nitrogen-containing
bases and other substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is
glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.

2. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid,

sphingosine, and carbohydrate.
 3. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids.
Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category

Precursor and Derived Lipids

These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes,
and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones.
Because they are uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and
cholesteryl esters are termed neutral lipids. These compounds are produced
by the hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids.
Some of the different types of lipids are described below in detail.

Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), often with long aliphatic tails
(long chains), either saturated or unsaturated.

• Saturated fatty acids

When a fatty acid is saturated it is an indication that there are no carbon-carbon
double bonds. The saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than
unsaturated acids of the corresponding size due to their ability to pack their
molecules together thus leading to a straight rod-like shape.

• Unsaturated fatty acids

If a fatty acid has more than one double bond then this is an indication that it is
an unsaturated fatty acid.
“Most naturally occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms
and are unbranched.”
Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, have a cis-double bond(s) that
create a kink in their structure which doesn’t allow them to group their molecules
in straight rod-like shape.

Role of Fats
Fats play several major roles in our body. Some of the important roles of fats
are mentioned below:

• Fats incorrect amounts are necessary for the proper functioning of our
body.
 • Many fat-soluble vitamins need to be associated with fats in order to be
effectively absorbed by the body.
• They also provide insulation to the body.
• They are an efficient way to store energy for longer periods.

Waxes
Waxes are “esters” (an organic compound made by replacing the hydrogen with
acid by an alkyl or another organic group) formed from long-chain carboxylic
acids and long-alcohols.
Waxes are seen all over in nature. The leaves and fruits of many plants have
waxy coatings, which may protect them from dehydration and small predators.
The feathers of birds and the fur of some animals have similar coatings which
serve as a water repellent.
Carnauba wax is valued for its toughness and water resistance(great for car
wax).

Phospholipids

Membranes are chiefly made of phospholipids which are Phosphoacylglycerols.

Triacylglycerols and phosphoacylglycerols are similar however the terminal OH
group of the phosphoacylglycerol is esterified with phosphoric acid instead of
fatty acid which leads to the formation of phosphatidic acid.
The name phospholipid comes from the fact that phosphoacylglycerols are
lipids that contain a phosphate group.
Steroids

The chemical messengers in our bodies are known as hormoneswhich are

organic compounds synthesized in glands and delivered by the bloodstream to
certain tissues in order to stimulate or inhibit the desired process.
Steroids are a type of hormone which is usually recognized by their tetracyclic
skeleton, consisting of three fused six-membered and one five-membered ring,
as shown in the diagram above. The four rings are designated as A, B, C & D
as noted in blue, and the numbers in red represent the carbons.

Cholesterol
• Cholesterol is waxy like substance, found only in animal source
foods. Triglycerides, LDL, HDL, VLDL are different types of cholesterol
found in the blood cells.
• Cholesterol is an important lipid found in the cell membrane. It is a sterol,
which means that cholesterol is a combination of steroid and alcohol. In
the human body, cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.h
 • These compounds are biosynthesized by all living cells and
are essential for the structural component of the cell membrane.
• In the cell membrane, the steroid ring structure of cholesterol provides a
rigid hydrophobic structure that helps boost the rigidity of the cell
membrane. Without cholesterol, the cell membrane would be too fluid.
• It is an important component of cell membranes and is also the basis for
the synthesis of other steroids, including the sex hormones estradiol
and testosterone, as well as other steroids such as cortisone and
vitamin D.

Examples of Lipids
There are different types of lipids. Some examples of lipids include butter,
ghee, vegetable oil, cheese, cholesterol and other steroids, waxes,
phospholipids, and fat-soluble vitamins. All these compounds have similar
features, i.e. insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents, etc.
Protein is a macronutrient that is essential to building muscle mass. It is commonly found
in animal products, though is also present in other sources, such as nuts and legumes.

Chemically, protein is composed of amino acids, which are organic compounds made of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur

TYPES OF PROTEIN
Function of protein
Nucleic Acid:
Nucleic acids are molecules that store and transmit hereditary information and energy
in living things. They are believed to be the first biomolecules to support life as it is
typically defined.

In 1953, a team including James Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind

Franklin accurately described the structure of DNA, or deoxyribonucleic
acid. They knew its three-dimensional form resembled a double helix, and
at least as importantly, they understood that DNA contains the genetic
code, or "blueprint," for all organisms (some viruses excepted, and not all
scientists accept that viruses are in fact alive).
Basic Characteristics of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids consist of a series of linked nucleotides. Each nucleotide, in turn, is

composed of three distinct elements: a five-carbon ribose sugar, a phosphate group
and a nitrogenous base. There are five types of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids:
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U).

exist in nature: DNA and RNA, or ribonucleic acid. The main differences between the
two is that, while DNA includes the bases A, C, G and T, RNA includes A, C, G and U.
A binds to – and only to – T in DNA, but it binds to only U in RNA. C binds to only G.

In addition, the sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and that in RNA is ribose; the latter
contains one more oxygen atom but is otherwise structurally identical. RNA, unlike
DNA, usually but not always exists in a single-stranded form.

Function of Nucleic Acids

Broadly speaking, DNA stores information, while RNA transfers information. You might
thus think of DNA as a computer hard drive or set of files, and RNA as a flash drive or
jump drive.

RNA can serve as a messenger to build proteins using information coded by DNA,
migrating from the nucleus where DNA "lives" to other parts of the cell to carry this
out. This is, fittingly, mRNA (m stands for "messenger"). A different kind of RNA,
transfer RNA (tRNA) helps in the assembly process of proteins from amino acids, and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) makes up most of the organelles called ribosomes, which also
participate in protein synthesis.

Many single-stranded RNA molecules form three-dimensional structures that include

weak hydrogen bonds between nucleotides. As with proteins, the three-dimensional
structure of an RNA molecule specifies a unique function in cells, including the
degradation of enzymes