Atmosphere Definition

Atmosphere refers to the gases surrounding a star or planetary body held in place
by gravity. A body is more likely to retain an atmosphere over time if gravity is
high and the temperature of atmosphere is low.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere is about 78 percent nitrogen, 21

percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, with water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other
gases. The atmospheres of other planets have a different composition.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth, including the brittle upper portion of
the mantle and the crust.

Rigid and rocky layer of earth.

It extends to a depth of about 60 miles (100 km). It is broken into about a

dozen separate, rigid blocks, or plates

The Composition and Structure of Earth

Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition. The crust makes up less
than 1 percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental crust is
often more felsic rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth’s
mass. Finally, the core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of the Earth.
Lithosphere and asthenosphere are divisions based on mechanical properties.
The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that
behaves as a brittle, and rigid.

Tectonic plate
Plate tectonics, theory dealing with the dynamics of Earth’s outer shell—the
lithosphere.
 Earth's tectonic platesMap showing Earth's major tectonic plates with arrows
depicting the directions of plate movement.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The concept of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s. According to the
theory, Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere, which is
typically about 100 km (60 miles) thick and overlies a plastic (moldable,
partially molten) layer called the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is broken up
into seven very large continental- and ocean-sized plates, six or seven
medium-sized regional plates, and several small ones. These plates move
relative to each other, typically at rates of 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year,
and interact along their boundaries, where they converge, diverge, or slip past
one another. Such interactions are thought to be responsible for most of
Earth’s seismic and volcanic activity, although earthquakes and volcanoes can
occur in plate interiors. Plate motions cause mountains to rise where plates
push together, or converge, and continents to fracture and oceans to form
where plates pull apart, or diverge. The continents are embedded in the plates
and drift passively with them, which over millions of years results in
significant changes in Earth’s geography

Pakistan on tectonic plates:

Pakistan geologically overlaps both with the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic
plates where its Sindh and Punjab provinces lie on the north-western corner of the
Indian plate while Balochistan and most of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa lie within the
Eurasian plate which mainly comprises the Iranian plateau, some parts of the Middle
East and Central Asia. The northern areas and Azad Kashmir lie mainly in Central Asia
along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes where
the two tectonic plates collide.

Rock:
Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more
minerals. Such aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is
composed and typically form recognizable and mappable volumes.

The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component

of geology

A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate

of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical
composition and the way in which it is formed

Types of rocks
There are three types of rocks

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from cooling magma. Magma that erupts onto Earth’s surface is
lava . The chemical composition of the magma and the rate at which it cools determine
what rock forms as the minerals cool and crystallize.

This flowing lava is molten rock that will harden into an igneous rock.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form by the compaction and cementing together of sediments,
broken pieces of rock-like gravel, sand, silt, or clay . Those sediments can be formed
from the weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks. Sedimentary rocks also include
chemical precipitates, the solid materials left behind after a liquid evaporates.

This sedimentary rock is made of sand that is cemented together to form a sandstone.
 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when the minerals in an existing rock are changed by heat or
pressure within the Earth. for an example of a metamorphic rock.

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed when quartz sandstone is exposed to heat and
pressure within the Earth.

Minerals
are substances that are formed naturally in the Earth. Rocks are made of minerals.
Minerals are usually solid, inorganic, have a crystal structure, and form naturally by geological
processes.[1]
The study of minerals is called mineralogy.
A mineral can be made of single chemical element or more usually a compound. There are over
4,000 types of known minerals Two common minerals are quartz and feldspar.
Characteristics of Mineral:
A mineral is a substance that usually

• is an inorganic solid. (elemental mercury is an exception)

• Has a definite chemical make-up

• usually has a crystal structure; some do not

• is formed naturally by geological processes

One recent definition is:

"A mineral is a homogeneous (which means composed of parts or elements that are all of
the same kind) naturally occurring substance with a definite but not necessarily fixed
chemical composition. Most minerals are solids with an ordered atomic arrangement, and
most are inorganic in the chemical sense of that word".

Uses of Minerals
People use minerals for many everyday purposes. Every time people turn on a microwave
oven or a TV, minerals are being used. The copper in the wires that carry electricity to the
machine is made from a mineral. Table salt or halite, is another mineral that people use in their
everyday life.
• Graphite is used to make pencils

• Rock salt is used in cooking

• Mineral ores are the source of metals.