Topic 3: The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

The Cell Cycle

Once a cell is fully grown, it either stops growing, or divides and produces more cells through a
process called cellular reproduction. Cellular reproduction causes the body to grow and repair worn-our
tissues.
Cells follow a cycle of growing and dividing, known as the cell cycle. Every time a parent cell
undergoes the cell cycle, it produces daughter cells. Therefore, the cell cycle always leads to an increased
number of cells.
There are two main stages in the cell cycle – interphase and cell division. The interphase stage is
longer than the cell division. In a 24-hour cell cycle, almost 23 hours is spent for interphase, and only an
hour for cell division. The completion of the whole cycle varies depending on the cell type. Some cells
complete the cycle in a few minutes; others after several hours, or even a year. In the human body, most
cells divide after 12 to 24 hours. Checkpoints are found in the different stages of the cell cycle. These
checkpoints monitor cell division, ensuring its smooth process.

Cell cycle and checkpoints

Source: https://o.quizlet.com/qsEyPawGXaQVMqgqP2xQfQ_b.png

Interphase (Preparation for Cell Division)

During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for cell
division. The three stages of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
G1 Phase
During the G1 phase, the cell grows and increases in size. Proteins are also synthesized and cell
organelles are produced.
There are two checkpoints in G1 phase, namely, the G1 DNA damage checkpoint and the restriction
checkpoint. The G1 DNA damage checkpoint evaluates the DNA’s integrity. Damaged DNA results in the
accumulation of p53 proteins that can trigger either cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. The p53 proteins (also
called TP53) are tumor-suppressing proteins that help in regulating the cell cycle. Apoptosis refers to a
process of programmed cell death. Thus, DNA with irreparable damage does not proceed to the next
phase. The restriction checkpoint evaluates the cell’s capability to undergo cell division. If the cell is ready,
it will proceed to the S phase. If not, the cell goes to G0. Cells in G0 are either quiescent (dormant) or
senescent (aging or deteriorating). Quiescent cells may go back to cell division with the proper stimulus.
One reason cells become senescent is due to damaged DNA.
S Phase
In the S (synthesis) phase, chromosomes are replicated. This means that there is twice the actual
DNA now present in the cell. Each chromosome consists of two chromatids. A chromatid is one copy of a
newly copied chromosome. However, the chromosomes will become visible only in prophase. At this
point, you will not be able to see the chromosomes using an ordinary light microscope. The S DNA damage
checkpoint monitors the replication process during this phase.

Source: https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-
6RK2yHHrfQM/XI7EDi1yUAI/AAAAAAAAARw/eGtf7yOqNOkBvcGqIMFk2H0u41lwhshQACLcBGAs/s1600/chromosome-and-chromatid.jpg

G2 Phase
At this point, the cell rapidly grows and protein synthesis continues. The G2 DNA damage
checkpoint checks activities in G2 to ensure its proper flow. The unreplicated DNA checkpoint ensures
that DNA synthesis is complete before proceeding to mitosis.

Mitosis
Prophase
In prophase, the chromosomes condense and are now visible even with just using the ordinary
light microscope. A chromosome consists of two sister chromatids attached to the single centromere.

Parts of a chromosome
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71jR4oeCYHX9n0louLqs_P6a4xVQXAKVgUIaflA
 In the late part of prophase, the nuclear envelope and the nucleolus disappear. The kinetochore,
a special protein complex, appears at the centromere. The function of the kinetochore is to link the spindle
fibers to the centromere.

Prophase
Source: https://image.shutterstock.com/image-vector/cell-growth-division-prophase-260nw-1506819611.jpg

Metaphase
In this phase, there are three kinds of microtubules in the spindle fibers: the astral, the polar, and
the kinetochore. Astral microtubules are those that grow only near the centrosome (the structure with
the centrioles). Polar microtubules grow away from the centrosome. These overlap at the middle where
the chromosomes are located, but they are still not attached to the kinetochore. Kinetochore
microtubules are the only ones attached to the kinetochore.

Types of microtubules in spindle fibers

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Spindle_apparatus.svg/1200px-Spindle_apparatus.svg.png

In metaphase, the kinetochore microtubule directs the chromosomes toward the center of the
cell in an area that is called the metaphase plate or the equatorial plate. The spindle assembly checkpoint
guarantees the proper alignment of the chromosomes at the metaphase plate. This prevents the untimely
onset of anaphase.

Metaphase
Source: https://image.shutterstock.com/image-vector/cell-growth-division-metaphase-260nw-1507887524.jpg

Anaphase
There are two substages in anaphase, namely, anaphase A and anaphase B. Plant cells rarely have
anaphase B. Sometimes, anaphase A happens before anaphase B, and vice versa. In other cases, they
transpire simultaneously.
In anaphase A, the kinetochore microtubules of the spindle fibers separate and move the sister
chromatids toward opposite poles.
In anaphase B, the polar microtubules begin to elongate, while the astral microtubules pull them
on the other side. These result in the poles moving farther apart from each other.
Cytokinesis starts at anaphase and continues to the next phase. Cytokinesis is the process of
dividing the cytoplasm into half.

The two types of anaphase: anaphase A; anaphase B

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PG4EXBQGSjKSzQvYQ8ox4YuzQbP9Ix5tazAm301ixmbNEdQ
 Anaphase
Source: https://image.shutterstock.com/image-vector/cell-growth-division-anaphase-260nw-1510968356.jpg

Telophase
In telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, and both the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope
reappear. Karyokinesis, the equal division of the one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei, is now
complete. Cytokinesis continues with the visible appearance of the cleavage furrow, a grove on the cell
membrane between the poles usually observed in animal cells. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow is
produced when the contractile ring, which is made up of proteins, constricts the middle of the cell. The
constriction continues until the opposite surfaces of the cell membrane are in contact. This finally
produces two daughter cells. The chromosome segregation checkpoint prevents cytokinesis to start until
all chromosomes are correctly separated.

Telophase in animal cells

Source: https://image.shutterstock.com/image-vector/cell-growth-division-telophase-260nw-1516275845.jpg

The cell wall of plants is a strong substance, and it cannot be constricted by contractile rings. Thus,
there is no cleavage furrow that can be observed. Instead, a cell plate forms. The cell plate is involved in
forming the cell wall of each daughter cell in plants.
 The cell plate is involved in the formation of new cell walls during telophase in plants
Source: https://mrleehamberscience9.files.wordpress.com/2019/05/cytokinesis-plant-cell.gif

Significance of Mitosis
Mitosis serves many purposes.
• First, mitosis ensures that the number of chromosomes of the parent cell is identical to its two
daughter cells. For example, humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell in the diploid state (2n).
A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, each coming from the parent cell. So if the parent cell
has 46 chromosomes, then the two daughter cells resulting from mitosis will each have 46
chromosomes (2n) also. In mosquitoes, there are six chromosomes only in each cell in the diploid
state. Thus, the daughter cells from mitosis will also have six chromosomes each. So, mitosis keeps
the chromosome number constant in a species.

Mitosis in humans starts with a parent cell having 46 chromosomes and ends with two daughter cells,
each with 46 chromosomes.
Source: https://images.slideplayer.com/31/9768007/slides/slide_14.jpg

• Mitosis also ensures the growth of the offspring. Remember that a human life starts life as a
zygote, a fertilized egg. This zygote will undergo continuous mitotic division. All the daughter cells
resulting from the multiple cell divisions will make up the body of the human. Also, you become
taller because bone cells continue to undergo mitosis.
• In some parts of the body, e.g., skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and
replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being
 replaced. In like manner, red blood cells have a short lifespan (only about 4 months) and new
RBCs are formed by mitosis.
• Mitosis also replaces the damaged cells in wounds. The damaged cells are replaced by new cells
produced by the healthy cells. The faster the healthy cells replace the damaged cells, the faster
the healing process will be.
• Mitosis causes maturation and multiplication of germ cells and makes them ready for meiosis.
• In single-celled organisms such as bacteria, mitosis is the process of asexual reproduction, making
identical copies of a single cell.

While mitosis gives benefits to the body, it can also cause problems if it happens too often.
Located in chromosome 17 are the p53 proteins. As mentioned earlier, p53 proteins are tumor-
suppressing proteins that can trigger either cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. If p53 mutates, mitosis would
not stop, which may result in cancer. Cancer is simply defined as cells that undergo continuous division
without stopping.