Module

5: is Also
Mitosis: Division
Multiplication
What is mitosis?
 MITOSIS
> Is the process where a single cell divides resulting
in generally two identical cells, each containing the
same number of chromosomes and genetic content
as that of the original cell.
Cell division allows an increase in cell number, or the multiplication of
a cell. Thus, cell division is also cell multiplication.

Cell division comes in two ways: Mitosis and Meiosis

Cell division starts with interphase, which has three subphases: G1, S,
and G2. Then mitosis follows with the next four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Checkpoint are found in the different stages of cell division. These

checkpoints monitor cell division, ensuring its smooth process.
 G1 Phase
• G stand for gap because it was initially
believed that there is nothing significant
happening at this stage.
• This is where several important processes
takes place inside the cell in preparation for
mitosis.
• In G1 the cell synthesizes mRNA and
proteins, which is needed for chromosome
replication.
There are two checkpoints in G1
1. G1 DNA damage checkpoints
• Evaluates the DNA’s integrity. Damage DNA results in the
accumulation of p53 proteins that can trigger either cell cycle
arrest or apoptosis.
• The p53 proteins (also called TP53) is a gene that codes for a
protein that regulates the cell cycle and hence functions as a
tumor suppression. It is very important for cells in multicellular
organisms to suppress cancer. The name is due to its
molecular mass: it is in the 53 kilodalton fraction of cell
proteins.
• Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death. It removes cells
during development, eliminates potentially cancerous and
virus-infected cells, and maintains balance in the body.
2. The Restriction checkpoint
• Evaluates the cell’s capability to undergo
cell division. If the cell is ready, it will
proceed to S phase. If not, the cell goes to
G 0 Cells in G0 are either quiescent
(dormant) or senescent (aging or
deteriorating). Quiescent cells may go
back to cell division with the proper
stimulus. One reason cells become
senescent is due to damaged DNA.
 S Phase
• In the S (synthesis) phase, chromosomes are
replicated. This means that there is twice the
actual.
• Each chromosomes is consists of two
chromatids.
• Chromatids is one copy of a newly copied
chromosome.
• The S DNA damage checkpoint monitors the
replication process during this phase.
 G2 Phase

• At this point, the cell rapidly grows and protein

synthesis continues.
• The G2 DNA damage checkpoint checks
activities in G 2 to ensure its proper flow.
• The unreplicated DNA checkpoints ensures
that DNA synthesis is complete before
proceeding to mitosis.
Mitosis Proper
 Prophase
• In prophase, the chromosomes condense and are now
visible even with just using the ordinary light
microscope. A chromosome consist of two sister
chromatids attached to the single centromere.

• In the late part of prophase, the nuclear envelope and

the nucleolus disappear. The kinetochore, a special
protein complex, appears at the centromere. The
function of the kinetochore is to link the spindle fibers to
the centromere.
Metaphase
In this phase, there are three kinds of microtubules in the
spindle fibers: the astral, the polar, and the kinetochore.

Astral microtubules – are those that grow only near the

centrosome (the structure with the centrioles).

Polar microtubules – grow away from the centrosome. These

overlap at the middle where the chromosomes are located, but
they are still not attached to the kinetochore.

Kinetochore microtubules – are the only ones attached to the

kinetochore.
 In metaphase, the kinetochore microtubule directs the chromosomes toward the
center of the cell in an area that is called the metaphase plate or the equatorial
plate.

The spindle assembly checkpoint guarantees the proper alignment of the

chromosomes at the metaphase plate. This prevents the untimely onset of
anaphase.
Anaphase
There are two substages in anaphase, namely, anaphase A and
anaphase B. Plant cells rarely have anaphase B. Sometimes, anaphase
A happens before anaphase B, and vice versa.

• Anaphase A, the kinetochore microtubules of the spindle fibers

separate and move the sister chromatids toward opposite poles.

• Anaphase B, the polar microtubules begin to elongate, while the

astral microtubules pull them on the other side. These results in the
poles moving farther apart from each other.

• Cytokinesis starts at anaphase and continues to the next phase.

Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm into half.
Telophase

• In telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, and both the nucleolus and the
nuclear envelope reappear.

• Cytokinesis continues with the visible appearance of the cleavage

furrow, a groove on the cell membrane between the poles usually
observed in animal cells.

• In animal cells, the cleavage furrow is produced when the contractile

ring, which is made up of proteins, constricts the middle of the cell. The
constriction continues until the opposite surfaces of the cell membrane
are in contact. This finally produces two daughter cells.

• The chromosome segregation checkpoint prevent cytokinesis to start

until all chromosomes are correctly separated.
MITOSIS SERVES MANY PURPOSES

 Mitosis ensures that the number of chromosomes of

the parent cell is identical to its two daughter cells.
For example:
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell in
the diploid state (2n). A diploid cell has two sets of
chromosomes, each coming from the parent cell. So if the
parent cell has 46 chromosomes, then the two daughters
cells resulting from mitosis will each have 46
chromosomes (2n) also.
 Mitosis also ensures the growth of the offspring.
Remember that a human life starts life as a zygote, a
fertilized egg. This zygote will undergo continuous mitotic
division. All the daughter cells resulting from the multiple cell
division will make up the body of the human. Also, you
become taller because bones cells continue to undergo
mitosis.

 Mitosis also replaces the damaged cells in wounds. The

damaged cells are replaced by new cells produced by the
healthy cells. The faster the healthy cells replace the
damaged cells, the faster the healing process will be.
 While mitosis gives benefits to the body, it can also cause
problems if it happens too often. Located in chromosome 17 are
the p53 proteins. If p53 proteins mitosis would not stop, which
may result in cancer. Cancer is simply defined as cells that
undergo continuous division without stopping.
 The growth of hair is also due to the mitotic activity of its root.
Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy may lose mitotic activity
in the hair root. This can lead to balding or hair loss on the head,
which is often one of the side effects of chemotherapy. Cells usually
resume their mitotic activity after the chemotherapy.