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UPDATED TO 2019 SYLLABUS

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BIOLOGY
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EDEXCEL INTL A LEVELS BIOLOGY

1. Cell Structure,
Reproduction and
Development
Eyepiece graticule: fitted into the eyepiece of the
microscope
and is used to measure objects.
1.1. Observing Cells Has no units and is calibrated by the stage
micrometre which has
an accurate scale (in mm) and
Cells are the basic units of all living organisms. provides reference dimensions.
Organisms can be unicellular or multicellular. 1mm= 1000 μm
New cells form by the division of existing cells. 1μm= 1000 nm
Cells are too small to be seen by the naked eye, therefore Use the same magnification when calibrating the
microscopes are used to magnify eyepiece
graticule and when using it to measure the
Light Microscopes: specimen.
Uses light to shine through the specimen, then
refracts through
glass lenses
An image is projected onto the eyepiece
Cheap, therefore commonly available in schools
Quick observation of cells
Preservation and staining of slides could cause
artefacts
Much lower magnification and resolution compared
to electron
microscopes

Electron Microscopes:
Uses beams of electrons to create an image
Electromagnetic lenses form an image
An image is projected onto a fluorescent screen Calculation example:
Due to the electron’s low wavelength compared to
visible light, high
magnification and resolution can be
achieved
Specimens are required to be in a vacuum, to prevent
disturbance of
electrons
Water boils in a vacuum, so specimen should be dead
Extremely expensive to buy and maintain
Specimens must undergo lengthy preparation before
use

Types of Electron Microscopes:

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): forms two-
dimensional
images
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): forms three-
dimensional
images at the compromise of a lower
magnification

Magnification: number of times larger an image is

compared to
the real size of the object.
Depends on the power of the objective and eyepiece
lens used.
0.1mm of SM = 40 div of EG
Calculating magnification:
1 div of EG= 0.1/40
0.0025mm*1000= 2.5μm
2.5μm*4 egu of chloroplast width= 10μm

Resolution: The ability to distinguish between two

separate
points. The higher the resolution, the higher the
detail.

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Electrons have an extremely short wavelength. This is

the main
reason why electron microscopes have a
higher resolution
Stains are coloured dye used to make viewing
cell/organelles easier.
Examples of stains include:
Acetocarmine: Stains the chromosomes during cell
division
Iodine: Stains starch-containing organelles in plants
Cell Organization Order:
Organelle: a specialized part of a cell that has its own
‎
function, e.g. the nucleus
Nucleus: The largest organelle in the cell. It’s surrounded
Cell: the smallest part of a living structure that can
by a
double membraned nuclear envelope. It is
operate as an independent unit e.g. red blood cell
connected to rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
Tissue: a group of cells with similar structures,
working
together to perform a shared function e.g.
muscle tissue
Organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues,
working
together to perform specific functions e.g.
heart
Organ System: a group of organs with related
functions,
working together to perform body
functions e.g. respiratory
system
Epithelial cells are tissues that line tubes and other
Nuclear pore: Gaps in the nuclear envelope that allow
surfaces
in animals.
exchange
between the nucleus and cytoplasm e.g. mRNA.
Types of epithelial cells Nucleolus: A dense region of pure DNA and protein,
functioning
to make ribosomes.
Simple, flattened, epithelial cells used to
Ribosomes: The site at which mRNA (transcribed from the
Squamous cover surfaces, allowing some substances
nucleus)
is translated into polypeptides with the help of
to pass through e.g. capillary wall
tRNA, therefore
help with protein synthesis. They are not
Simple cuboid shaped epithelial cells used membrane-bound.
Cuboidal in absorbtion and secretion e.g. in water 70S ribosomes: Smaller ribosomes present mostly in
regulation Prokaryotic cells
A simple, columnar epithelial cell which is 80S ribosomes: Larger ribosomes present in
Columnar
able to specialize Eukaryotic cells
A specialized version of columnar cells that Rough endoplasmic reticulum: An extensive membrane
Glandular secretes chemical substances e.g. goblet system with
80S ribosomes attached which produces the
cells rough appearance. The RER
provides a pathway for the
Made up of multiple layers of cells, with the transport of materials throughout a cell.
Stratified purpose of fast replication e.g. epithelial Forms a complex 3D system of sheet-like membranes
cells under the skin and tubes
enclosing fluid-filled sacs called cisternae.
Proteins made by ribosomes on RER enter sacs and
move through
them, folding to form the tertiary
1.2. Eukaryotic Cells structure. Transport vesicles
bud off from the RER and
join forming the Golgi body.
Eukaryotic cells are mainly present in animals, plants, and Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum: A site for lipid and
fungi. steroid
synthesis e.g. cholesterol and reproductive
Ultrastructure: The structure revealed by the electron hormones.
micrograph. A meshwork of tubular membrane vesicles with fluid-
Main features of Eukaryotic cells include: filled sacs
that have no ribosome on its surface,
making it “smooth”.
Mitochondria: provides energy for aerobic respiration
and is
more in areas that require high energy.

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transport vesicles which pinch

of the RER, and are broken
down to form Golgi vesicles.

Has a matrix that contains 70S ribosomes and circular

DNA which
are used to make enzymes
Cristae: folding of inner membrane that projects into
interior solution, matrix
Intermembrane space: space between the two
membranes

Collects, processes, modifies and sorts molecules that

are ready
for transport in Golgi vesicles to other parts
of the cell or
out of the cell by:
Secretion/exocytosis: fusion of the secretory vesicle
with
the cell membrane to release contents.
Makes lysosomes, glycoproteins and functioning
proteins.

The sequence of protein transport in Eukaryotes:

Primary structure of a protein is formed by
Stalked particles are attached to the intermembrane ribosomes, then
released into the RER’s cisternae
space and
are essential in forming ATP. Cisternae allow the protein to undergo precise folding
ATP is the direct energy source utilised by body cells. to
achieve the tertiary structure
Endosymbiont theory: mitochondrion and chloroplast Cisternae pinch off to transport the protein by
were bacteria
that now live inside larger cells of animals transport
vesicles to the Golgi body
and plants, which is
why chloroplast and mitochondrion Transport vesicle merges with the Golgi body,
have circular DNA and 70S
ribosomes. allowing the
protein molecule to undergo
Centrioles: They are present near the nucleus formed modification and packaging
from 9
triplets of microtubules. Centrioles will be The final protein molecule could either be released
discussed in further
details in (INSERT CHAPTER NO.). outside the
cell or kept in the cell as lysosomes
Lysosomes: a single membrane with no internal structure
in
animal cells. They contain digestive (hydrolytic) 1.3. Prokaryotic Cells
enzymes that are
kept separate from the rest of the cell
to prevent damage. Prokaryote: organisms that lack a nucleus and have
Responsible for the breakdown of unwanted simpler
structures e.g. bacteria.
structures e.g. old
organelles or entire cells, in WBC to
digest bacteria.

Golgi Apparatus: a stack of flattened membranes

enclosing hollow
concaved sacs (cisternae) formed by

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Feature Prokaryote Eukaryote

Transcription and Simultaneously (as
Consecutively
translation no nucleus)

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1.4. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Chromosome: threadlike structure containing DNA visible
during
mitosis.
Chromatin: combination of DNA wound around histones
proteins
(basic).
Chromatid: A single arm of the X-shaped chromosome

Comparing Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes:

Feature Prokaryote Eukaryote

Circular Linear
Lies free in the Surrounded by
cytoplasm nucleus Stages of the Cell Cycle:
DNA
Associated with
Is naked histone, forming
chromosomes
RIBOSOME 70S only 70S and 80S
Present, to which
ER Absent ribosomes may be
attached Interphase: cell grows to its normal size after cell division,
Very few Many and
synthesises important substances e.g. proteins.
Growth 1 phase: gap after cell division and before S
Single, double and
ORGANELLES No membrane- phase. 46
chromosomes and chromatids at this
no membrane-
bound organelles phase.
bound organelles
Prepares for growth and DNA synthesis (S phase)
Murein, a by producing
RNA, proteins and enzymes.
peptidoglycan New organelles are formed.
Cellulose and lignin
(polysaccharide If there are insufficient growth factors, or when
in plants
containing amino cell has
reached its maximum size, cell will not
CELL WALL acids) divide and remain in
G1.
Chitin (nitrogen- S phase: synthesis of DNA. Each chromosome consists
containing of two
identical chromatids. 46 chromosomes and 92
polysaccharide) in chromatids at this
stage.
fungi Chromatin also replicates along with DNA so
Mitosis and histones are
replicated
Cell division Binary fission
cytokinesis Growth 2 phase: gap after S phase and before nuclear
division
(prepares for mitosis)

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New DNA checked, and errors are repaired. Hard to find mates
Centrioles replicate. Resources wasted by forming gametes
Food storage is increased.
In meiosis, chromosomes are halved from diploid (2n)
Mitosis: nuclear division producing two genetically cells to
haploid (n) cells
identical
daughter nuclei, each containing the same no. of Thus, chromosome number is kept constant instead of
chromosomes as the
parent. doubling every
generation
Stages of Mitosis: Stages of Meiosis:

Note: nuclear envelope breaks down into vesicles during

prophase
and reassembles when the vesicles fuse to form
the envelope back at
telophase
Crossing-over: Occurs during prophase I. Homologous
Cytokenisis: division of cytoplasm between daughter cells, chromosomes
pair up along the length of all four
last
stage of cell division. It results in the formation of 2 chromatids.
cells. Chiasmata is formed between bivalent chromosomes,
It connects
with a non-sister chromatid so maternal
Significance of mitosis: and paternal genes are
exchanged
Growth: clones produced allow growth of multicellular Several of these occur resulting in large amounts of
organism
from unicellular zygote. variation
Replacement of cells and repair of tissues: cells die
and are
replace; rapid in skin, lining of gut, and to Independent Assortment: Occurs during Metaphase I.
regenerate whole parts
of body. Pairs of
homologous chromosomes lie independently of
Asexual reproduction: production of a new individual each other and randomly
at the equator, therefore
by a single
parent. genetically different gametes fuse at
random.
In unicellular organisms, cell division results in
reproduction. 1.6. Gamete Formation: Mammals
In multicellular organisms, new individuals
produced bud off
from parent. Spermatogenesis (Males):
Takes place in the tubules of the testes
Mitotic Index: A measure of how actively cells are dividing
Germinal epithelial cells divide by mitosis to produce
in a
given tissue. It is calculates by:
diploid
spermatogonia which grow to form primary
Cells in Mitosis spermatocytes
Mitotic Index = These divide by meiosis I to form 2 haploid
Total number of cells
​

secondary
spermatocytes which continue with
1.5. Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis meiosis II forming 4
spermatids that mature into
spermatozoans
Features of Sexual Reproduction:
Formation of gametes
Uses meiosis cell division
Leads to genetic variation

Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction:

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Oogenesis (Females):
Takes place in the ovaries Sperm Gamete:
Germinal epithelial cells divide by mitosis to produce
diploid
oogonia
Oogonia start meiosis and become primary oocytes
(still diploid),
but meiosis stops at prophase I
All this occurs before a baby girl is born and at birth
has around
400 000 primary oocytes Acrosome: A membrane-bound storage site for
At puberty, primary oocyte continues to finish meiosis enzymes that digest
the layers surrounding the ovum
I to produce
secondary oocyte and first polar body to penetrate it.
(small haploid cell with less
cytoplasm; degenerates) Nucleus: Contains highly condensed genetic material,
Each month one secondary oocyte is released into the therefore
less energy is required to carry it
oviduct to get
fertilised Neck/Middle: Tightly packed mitocondion is present.
If fertilisation occurs, secondary oocyte undergoes They provide
the energy for lashing the tail to move
meiosis
II to form an ovum and second polar body Tail: A complex flagellum (9+2 microtubule) that
If ovum is fertilised, then a diploid cell is formed: creates a
whipping motion to propel it forwards
zygote embryo
fetus
Egg Gamete:

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gamete

Zona Pellucida: A jelly-like layer surrounding the

oocyte; controls sperm enterance
Cytoplasm: Stores large amounts of food
Follicle Cells: Surrounds the Zona Pellucida. They are
left
over from the ovulation process.
Cotical Granules: Specialized lysosomes that activate
when
sperm enters the cell, causing the Zona
Pellucida to harden.
This prevent polyspermy
In plants, gametes are not formed directly from meiosis,
fertilization
instead
meiosis is used in producing the pollen grains
Haploid Nucleus: Genetic material at the end of the
and embryo sac which
then form gametes by mitosis
first stage of meiosis

1.7. Gamete Formation: Plants 1.8. Fertilisation: Mammals

Cells surrounding the secondary oocyte release
In males:
chemicals, attracting
the sperm cells.
Takes place in the anther
Once sperm reaches the secondary oocyte, an Acrosome
Diploid pollen mother cells divide by meiosis forming
reaction
occurs.
4 haploid
cells.
Enzymes are released. They begin digesting the follicle
The nuclei of these cells divide by mitosis (cytokinesis
and zona
pellucida layers.
does
not take place) resulting in cells with two haploid
The enzymes are released by exocytosis from the sperm
nuclei
head.
These cells mature into pollen grains
Once digested, the sperm nucleus decondenses. Then it’s
One of the nuclei is the tube nucleus and the
released by
exocytosis into the secondary oocyte.
other is
generative nucleus. The generative
The cortical reaction takes place, releasing enzymes that
nucleus divides by
mitosis to give 2 nuclei, which
cause
hardening of the zona pellucida. This prevents
are the male gametes.
other sperm cells
from entering.
The genetic material is taken into the cell by endocytosis.
This
triggers Meiosis II to form an ovum.
The haploid nuclei fuse, forming a diploid zygote.

1.9. Fertilisation: Plants

Once a pollen reaches the stigma surface, it starts
germinating
after absorbing the sugar solution on its
surfaces.
The pollen tube starts growing towards towards the
In females: embryo via
chemical stimulus.
The tube nucleus releases enzymes by exocytosis
Takes place in the ovules
Diploid spore mother cell divides by meiosis to allowing the
formation of a tube.
produce four
haploid cells As the tube elongates, nutrient are absorbed along the
All but one degenerates; this cell develops into an way.
embryo sac The generative nucleus divides producing 2 sperm nuclei.
Embryo sac divides by mitosis 3 times forming 8 The pollen tube reaches the micropyle (the enterance to
haploid nuclei,
of which one becomes the female the embryo),
penetrating the embryo sac wall.

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Double fertilization occurs, in which 1 nucleus fuses with It then undergoes several process, including intron
the
Egg cell, forming a diploid zygote. The other nucleus removal, by
splicosomes to produce the mRNA.
fuses with the
2 polar nuclei forming a triploid By this process, multiple different proteins could be
endosperm nucleus. produced from
1 gene.
After fertilization, the ovule becomes a seed, The zygote Epigenetics: The study of the factors that affect genes
becomes an
embryo, and the endosperm becomes food other
than the base sequence of the DNA.
storage. DNA Methylation: It’s when a methyl group is added,
surpressing
a gene.
1.10. Cell Differentiation DNA Demethylation: The removal of the methyl group,
causing a
gene to be reactivated.
Cell differentiation allows the rise of specialized cells. Histone acetylation: Addition of acetyl group, causing
Certain genes are surpressed, while others remain active. transcription of a certain gene.
Locus: position at which a particular gene is found on a Histone methylation: This is different to DNA methylation.
particular chromosome. It
depends on the position of the lysine (where methyl is
Polygenic Traits: Involve multiple genes and usually added).
affected by
the environment e.g. height. It gives rise to
continuous variate
i.e. a phenotype measurable on a 1.12. Stem Cells
scale.
Digenetic inheritance: Deals with the inheritance of two Stem cells: cells that divide repeatedly by mitosis, and
separate genes on different chromosomes at once differentiate into specialized cells or remain as stem cells.
They usually invole ratios to be known (9:3:3:1) There are three different kinds:
During experiments, ratios may be unexpected due to Totipotent: cells that can divide repeatedly to form
a small
sample size, experimental errors. any other
cell in the body, e.g. zygote
Pluripotent: embryotic stem cells that lead to
development of
the embryo and later the adult. They
can not specialized into
placenta.
Multipotent: Adult stem cells that are only able to
produce a
few types of cells e.g. stem cells in bone
marrow.
Blastocyte: An early embryo made of a hollow ball of cells
with
pluripotent cells on the inside, forming an organism
Morula: An early staged embryo of 16 cells

1.13. Uses of Stem Cells

Stem cells can be used in multiple medical fields, such as
organ
transplants and genetic diseases e.g. Parkinson’s.
Theraputic Cloning: The nucleus of a human ovum is
removed and
replaced with a patient’s cell. Forming cells
with the same genetic
information as the patient’s.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells: Transcription factors are
carried using a virus to a patient’s skin cell for example. It
is
them able to become a stem cell. Although this method
1.11. Controlling Gene Expression eliminates
ethical issues, they do tend to become
cancerous cells.
DNA consists of introns (non-coding DNA) and exons.
Transcription factors are proteins that bind to a specific
region in the DNA called the promoter sequence. Other 2. Plant Structure and
transcription factors bind to the enhancer sequence and
work by
physically changing the chromatin structure. Function, Biodiversity and
These transcription factors are essential in promoting the
transcription process, allowing expression of genes. Conservation
Each transcription factor may either surpress or express
certain
genes.
RNA Splicing: 2.1. The Cell Wall
After the transcription process occurs, the pre-mRNA
Cells walls are responsible for a plant cell’s strength.
is produced

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Plant cells are connected to each other by the middle Chloroplast: It is responsible for producing food in a plant
lamella, which
is made of pectin. cell, it contains many parts:
The cell wall is made up of cellulose fibres and matrix. Thylakoid
The matrix is made of hemicellulose and pectin. It helps Granum
hold the
cellulose fibres together. Stroma
Cellulose microfibres contain around 60-70 microfibriles. Starch Grain
For the transfer of materials between cells, regions called Ribosomes
pits
contain plasmodesmata. This region has no cell wall
allowing
exchange of substances between cells.
In dead cells, like the xylem, a secondary cell wall is
present that
covers the plasmodesmata. It provides
support and rigidity.
Secondary cell wall contains cellulose at angles and lignin.
It is
waterproof which causes the cell to die.
Celluose:
It is a polysaccharide made up of β-glucose molecules
Hydrogen bonds formed between molecules
They form long straight chains
Every other molecules flips, allowing glycosidic bonds
to form Amyloplast: Responsible for startch storage

2.3. Plant Stems

The main function of stem cells is to provide support and

a means of
transportation.
Parenchyma is a packing tissue that is scattered throught
out
the stem. It is unspecialized but can be modified to
different cell
types.
2.2. Plant Organelles Sclerenchyma is a modified parenchyma that contains
lignin. They
contain pits allowing sideways water flow
through out the stem. They
also have tampered ends.
Xylem: Carry water and minerals from the roots to the
leaves.
Contain pits to allow movement of water between
vesicles. Cell walls
thickened with lignin. Water can move
sideways through pits. The
don’t have tampered ends.
Xylem is crucial in providing support to
the plant.
Hollow tubes allowing easy flow of water and minerals
Thick lignin walls withstand high pressure
Cell contents are removed, increasing flow
Phloem:
They are made out of structures called sieve tubes.
Unlike Xylem
cells, phloem cells are living.
This means that sieve cell walls are made of cellulose.
They
also contain cell organelles like mitochondrion.
A sieve plate forms when 2 sieve cells meet.
Companion cells are present with each sieve cell. They
have
normal plant cell organelles.
Translocation is the process of transport of sucrose
Tonoplast: A membrane that surrounds the vacuole. The from a
source to a sink.
vacuole
contributes to water regulations via osmosis.

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Preclinical Trials: Before drugs could be tested on

humans,
they have to undergo testing on other
mammals like rats or
monkeys. Sometimes computer
models could be used to see the
effect of the drug on
the cell. If a drug doesn’t pass this
stage, there is no
use of risking human lives on it.
Clinical Trials:
2.4. Plants and Minerals Phase 1: A small sample of healthy adults are
tested for
the drug. Healthy adults are used
Plants use water for many functions, including: initially because they
have a strong immune
Photosynthesis: Plants use water, in addition to system and won’t get as much harm if
the drug
carbon dioxide,
to form glucose. was harmful.
Water is essential in keeping plant cells turgid, Phase 2: A slightly larger sample on patients
providing
support. carrying
the disease are used. In this stage
Water can act as a transport medium for minerals and patients are monitored
to check for the ideal
sucrose in
the plant. dosage.
Water helps regulate temperature, preventing loss of Phase 3: A large sample size is used. A portion is
water. give
the drug while the other portion is given a
placebo. This is
essential in determining whether a
Minerals drugs is producing any
effects or not. Neither the
Used to produce proteins, nucleic acids, doctors nor the patients know if
they have the
Nitrates placebo or not. This process is know as the
double
chlorophyll.
Produce chlorophyll, activation of blind test.
Magnesium enzymes, and preventing yellowing of
leaves 2.6. Principles of Classification
Form the middle lamella and cell
Calcium Species: a group of organisms with similar morphological
membranes
and
physiological features, which can interbreed to
Plant fibres are extracted from plants through various produce fertile
offspring and are reproductively isolated
methods like
retting. The use of plant fibres have many from other species.
advantages like being
biodegradable, carbon neutral, and Ecosystem: a relatively self-contained, interacting
community of
organisms, and the environment in which
being a sustainable resource.
they live and with which
they interact.
Starch has other uses like producing bioplastics, which
could be
burned without polluting the environment. Niche: is the role of an organism in an ecosystem (it is
how an
organism fits into the ecosystem).
Biodiversity: The variety of species in an area along with
2.5. Drugs and Drug Testing their
variation within species and the genetic diversity
between
them.
Plants carry many antimicrobial properties which could Taxanomy: Biologists created a process called
be used by
humans to create medicines. classification to
arrange organisms into groups, as:
For bacteria to grow, certain conditions must be present These taxa form a hierarchy which helps to group
like
warmth, moisture, nutrients, and Oxygen. organisms
A new drug has to go through several testing stages
before being
available to patients.
William Withering used a plant called foxgloves that
contained the
chemical called Digitalis to produce a heart
treatment medicine. It
has been done through the
following process:
He extracted the active ingredient from the plant
Tested the drug on patients with the disease
Side effects were noted
He slowly increased the dose of the medicine until
patients
experienced diarrhoea and vomiting then
began reducing the dose
until reaching an ideal dose
Recorded and published the results.
Current testing procedures differ from what William used.
They are
divided into phases:

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N (N −1)
Diversity Index: D = ∑ n(n−1)
​
​

The formula will be provided to you in the exam

D = diversity index
N = The total number of organisms
n = The total number of organisms in each species
Heterozygosity Index:
Number of Heterozygotes
Number of Individuals in the Population ​

The greater the heterozygosity index, the greater

the diversity due
to high genetic variation

2.8. Adaptations and Gene Pools

Types of Adaptations:
Anatomical: A physical change in the structure of an
organism giving it an advantage
Taxanomy has resulted in the division of organisms into Physiological: A change in the chemical working of the
three
domains: body
giving an advantage
Bacteria Behavioral: A change in instinctive behaviors for
Archaea survival
benefits
Eukaryota Hardy-Weinberg’s Principle:
Eukaryota are further divided into 4 main kingdoms Used to calculate allele, genotype and phenotype
Protista frequencies
within a large randomly mating
Fungi population.
p + q = 1 and
p2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1
Plantae p represents dominant allele frequency
Animalia q represents recessive allele frequency
As science advanced, and DNA analysis became more Hardy-Weinberg’s principle does not apply when there
understodd. It has
been used in classifying different is:
organisms instead of the
classical approach of Significant selective pressure against a genotype
morphology and anatomy. Migration into or out of population
Non-random mating
2.7. Biodiversity Limited population

Gene pool: The total amount of genes in a given

Edemism: when a species of organism is found only
population.
within a
particular geographical region.
Mutations cause changes in the genetic information of an
Why Biodiversity matters?
organism,
which can lead to a change in the gene
Moral and ethical: some people/cultures believe we frequency in a given
population. They can also occur as a
have no
right to cause extinction of other species.
result of natural selection.
Ecological: ecosystems are more stable when
biodiversity is
high. They also add direct value to us eg
medicinal herbs and
must be protected so that 2.9. Isolation and Conservation
species beneficial to us are not lost.
Nutrient cycles and food chains are disrupted when Speciation is the formation of new species
biodiversity
is harmed. Geographic speciation: when speciation occurs where
Aesthetic: many people enjoy the variety of organisms two
populations are separated from each other
and
habitats on earth, which provide inspiration for geographically.
creative
people. Mixing of the two is prevented, and each have
The number of species in a community is known as different
selection pressures acting on the
species
richness populations
Species diversity takes species richness into account, but This results in different alleles being selected for, and
also
includes evenness of abundance of each species soon
the morphological, physiological and
behavioural features become
so different that the two
In species diversity there are two points that need to be populations can no longer interbreed
even if the
found:
distribution and abundance of species. barrier is removed
Sympatric speciation: is when a new species is evolved
Species abundance is the measure of the number of from a species that inhabits the same geographic region.
species in a
given area. It’s mostly
due to a change in behaviors between mates.
Measuring Biodiversity: Preventing the
recognition of reproduction behaviors.

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Major threats to biodiversity: Zoo: has a variety of functions in addition to providing

Habitat loss: process in which habitat is rendered enjoyment and interest for visitors who can study animals
functionally unable to support the species present. In they would
not be able to see otherwise.
this
process, the organisms that previously used the Advantages:
site are
displaced, habitats get destroyed, reducing Provide protection for endangered species and have
biodiversity and
leading to extinction in extreme successful
captive breeding programs with the aim of
cases. reintroducing them to
their natural habitat.
Deforestation: due to farming, urbanisation etc leads Maintain genetic diversity by breeding with different
to
severe land degradation as a result of soil erosion. mates.
Climate change: plants and animals affected as they Research to better understand breeding habits,
may not
be able to adjust. habitat
requirements and ways to increase genetic
Major cause is greenhouse gas emission from eg diversity
organic waste (methane) and factories (CO2). It Disadvantages:
traps more heat, causing global warming and a Not all conservation attempts are a success
rise in sea
levels. Animals can refuse to breed in captivity
As the earth gets warmer, organisms at high Sometimes not possible to create suitable habitat
altitudes find
it difficult to adapt. Difficult for animals to adapt to wildlife as they were
Extinction of species due to overfishing, mining, used to
being cared for.
fertilizer
run-off, and high temperatures They do not have the skills required to survive in
Pollution caused by untreated industrial and domestic natural
habitat as they can’t:
waste
leaking into the environment, effecting animals’ Avoid predators
metabolism or
excretion. Find food
Non-biodegradables such as plastic can be eaten by Rear their own
animals Frozen zoos & seed banks: storage facility in which
Fertilizers can drain into rivers causing eutrophication, genetic
materials taken from animals (e.g. DNA, sperm,
killing all species in that ecosystem. eggs, embryos and
live tissue) are gathered and stored at
Air pollution causes acid rain, affecting aquatic life very low temperatures for
optimal preservation over a
and
vegetation. long period.
Poaching: hunting and poaching for eg ivory, and
overfishing
due to overpopulation

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