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Resolution – the minimum distance apart that two objects can be for them to appear as
separate items
Resolution depends on the wavelength/form of radiation used
Increasing magnification, might not improve resolution
Cell Fractionation
Tissues
o Epithelial cells
Found in animals and consist of sheets of cells
Line the surfaces of organs
Often have secretory or protective functions
o Xylem
Found in plants
Used to transport water and mineral ions through plants
Gives mechanical support to the plant
Organs
o A combination of tissues that are coordinated to perform a common function
o Organ systems:
Digestive system – digests and processes food, includes salivary glands,
oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, pancreas and liver
Respiratory system – breathing and gas exchange, includes trachea, bronchi
and lungs
Circulatory system – pumps and circulates blood, includes heart, arteries
and veins
Prokaryotic cells
Structure Role
Cell Wall Made of murein – peptidoglycan
Physical barrier that excludes substances and protects against
mechanical damage and osmotic lysis
Capsule Made of mucilaginous slime
Surrounds cell wall
Protects bacteria from other cells
Helps groups of bacteria stick together
Cell-surface Acts as a differentially permeable layer
membrane Controls the entry/exit of chemicals
Circular DNA Possess the genetic information for the replication of cells
DNA is not associated with proteins
Plasmid Possess genes that aid survival of bacteria in adverse conditions – i.e.
produces enzymes that hydrolyse antibiotics
Can reproduce themselves independently
Often used as vectors in genetic engineering
Flagellum Used for locomotion
Binary Fission
Mitosis
Anaphase
o Centromeres divide and spindle fibres pull apart the chromatids
o Chromatids move to each pole
o Process is driven by ATP, which gathers around the spindle fibres
o If chemicals are used that destroy the spindle fibres, then the chromosomes remain
at the equator
Telophase and cytokinesis
o Chromosomes become longer and thinner again, then disappear leaving chromatin
o Spindle-fibres disintegrate and nucleus reforms
o Finally, the cytoplasm separates through cytokinesis
Cell cycle
Cells typically spend about 90% of their time in interphase
Interphase involves:
o G1 – normal cell life (i.e. protein synthesis and respiration)
o S phase – DNA replicated, and ATP stored for Anaphase
o G2 – second growth phase, in which cell is checked for damage and repaired before
mitosis
Cancer
Rapid uncontrolled growth of cells due to DNA damage that results in a tumour
Cancer is treated by chemotherapy which prevents DNA replication and inhibits metaphase
Chemotherapy will damage normal cells, but not to the same degree as cancer cells as cell
division is slower in healthy cells
Most molecules cannot freely move across the membrane because they are:
o Not soluble in lipids
o Too large to pass through protein channels
o Same charge as the protein channels, so are repelled and cannot pass through
o Electrically charged (polar), so cannot pass through to a non-polar membrane
Fluid-mosaic model of the cell-surface membrane:
o Fluid – individual phospholipids can move relative to each other, gives the
structure flexibility
Simple diffusion:
o The net movement of molecules or ions from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration, until concentration is evenly distributed
Facilitated diffusion:
o Still a passive process, relies only on kinetic energy and involves both protein
channels and carrier proteins
o Protein channels – water-filled hydrophilic channels, allow specific water-soluble
ions through. Ions bind to the channel changing its shape
o Carrier proteins – transports larger molecules like glucose, which bind to its surface
changing its shape
Osmosis – the passage of water from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration, through a selectively permeable membrane
Water potential () – the pressure created by water molecules. Pure water has a water
potential of 0
Water moves towards a more negative water potential
Active Transport
The movement of ions into/out of the cell using ATP, against a concentration gradient
Ions bind to receptor sites on carrier protein, ATP also binds. This changes the shape of the
protein allowing the ion to pass through
Epithelial cells lining the ileum have microvilli on their CSMs, providing a larger surface area
for absorption
Glucose molecules move into the blood at the same time as sodium ions that have been
actively pumped into the ileum by the sodium/potassium pump
The sodium/potassium pump is an example of co-transport it works by:
1. Sodium ions are actively transported out of epithelial cell into the blood
2. This maintains a higher concentration of sodium ions in the lumen of the intestine
than inside the epithelial cells
3. Sodium ions diffuse into the epithelial cells down the concentration gradient,
through co-transport proteins. The protein also carries a glucose molecule with the
sodium
4. Glucose then passes into the blood plasma through facilitated diffusion
2 1
Defence mechanisms
Phagocytosis
1. Pathogen releases chemical which attract phagocytes, which then moves down the
concentration gradient towards the pathogen
2. Phagocyte has receptors on its CSM that attaches the pathogen to its surface
3. Lysosomes within the phagocyte migrate towards the phagosome, formed as the pathogen
is engulfed
4. Lysosome releases lysozymes into the phagosome, this hydrolyses the pathogen
5. Hydrolysis products are absorbed or leave the cell by exocytosis
Cell-mediated immunity
Humoral immunity
Involves B cells that produce one specific type of antigen, these means that there are as
many as 10 million different B cells
Monoclonal antibodies – A clone of B cells that produces one specific antibody, within each
clone the cells produced develop into one of two types of cell:
o Plasma cells – secrete antibodies into the blood plasma, only survive a few days, but
can make around 2000 antibodies a second. Part of the primary immune response
o Memory cells – can survive for decades, when they encounter the specific antigens
they rapidly divide and develop into plasma cells and more memory cells. Part of the
secondary immune response
1. Surface antigens of an invading pathogen are taken up by the B cell
2. B cell processes the antigens and presents them on its surface
3. Activated TH cell attach to the antigens on the B cells, this activate the B cells
4. Activated B cells divide by mitosis forming a clone of plasma cells
5. Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies that are specific to the antigens on the
pathogen
6. Antibody attaches to antigens on pathogens and destroys them
7. Some B cells develop into memory cells, which respond to future infections
Antibodies
Vaccination