The minimum distance between

two objects in which they can still

be viewed as separate objects

Resolution This is determined by the

wavelength of light in a light
microscope and by the wavelength
of the electron beam in an electron
microscope

How many times larger the image is

compared to the object

Magnification Magnification=size of the

image/size of the real object

I
A M

Types of Optical microscope

Transmission electron microscope
Scanning electron microscope
microscope Laser scanning confocal
microscope

A small piece of glass with a

measurement scale etched on its
surface that fits inside a
Eye piece graticule microscope eyepiece
 Line up the stage micrometer and
eyepiece graticule whilst looking
through the eyepiece
Calibrating the Count how many divisions on the
eyepiece graticule fit into one
eyepiece division on the micrometer scale
Each division on the micrometer is
graticule 10μm, so this can be used to
calculate what one division on the
eyepiece graticule is at that current
magnification

Differential A technique involving many

different chemical stains being
used to stain different parts of a
staining cell in different colours
E.g. crystal violet and safranin

A common use of differential

staining that allows different
bacteria to be visualised
Two different stains are used-
Gram staining crystal violet and safranin

Draw in pencil
Title the diagram to indicate what
Features of the specimen is
State the magnification that you
scientific are drawing it from
Annotate cell components, cells
drawings and sections of tissue visible
Do not scetch- only use solid lines
that do not overlap
Do not colour in or shade
 The sample must thin and stained
Beam of electrons passes through
How does a TEM the sample used to create an image
Focused using electromagnets in a
work? vacuum

Highest revolving power

High magnification
Evaluation of TEMs Exteremely thin specimens required
Complex staining method
Specimen must be dead
Vacuum required

Beam of electrons pass across the

How does a SEM sample used to create an image
Focused using electromagnets
work?

Evaluation of High resolving power

High magnification
Thick specimens unusable
SEMs Complex staining method
Specimen must be dead
Vacuum required
How does a laser A type of fluorescent microscope
The image is created using a very
scanning high light intensity to illuminate
the specimen stained with a
confocal fluorescent dye
The image is created as the
microscope work? microscope scans the specimen
point-by-point using a focused
laser beam

Evaluation of laser High resolution

scanning confocal High depth selectivity
Can view tiny structures (e.g.
microscope embryos) in detail

Phospholipid bilayer with

embedded intrinsic and extrinsic
Plasma membrane proteins

structure

Surrounded by a double membrane

Nucleus nuclear envelope with nuclear pores

Contains chromosomes with
protein bound, linear DNA
structure Nucleolus to synthesise ribosomes
 Site of transcription and pre-mRNA
splicing

Nucleus function Site of DNA replication

Nucleolus makes ribosomes
Nuclear pore allows movement of
substances to/from cytoplasm

Plasma
Maintain structural integrity and
membrane act as a barrier, controlling passage
of substances in and out of the cell
function

Hair-like projections out of cells

Cilia structure

Can be mobile or stationary

Mobile cilia help move
substances in a sweeping
Cilia function motion
Stationary cilia are important in
sensory organs, such as the
nose
 Whip-like structure

Flagella structure

Double membrane with inner

Mitochondria membrane folded into cristae

Fluid-filled centre called matrix
70S ribosomes in matrix
structure Small, circular DNA
Enzymes in matrix

Mitochondria Site of anaerobic respiration

ATP production
function

For mobility, and sometimes as a

Flagella function sensory organelle for chemical
stimuli
 Made of microtubules and occur in
pairs to form a centrosome
Centriole
structure

Stacks of membranes creating

flattened sacs called cistern,
Golgi apparatus surrounded by small, round and
hollow vesicles
structure

Proteins and lipids are modified

here.
Carbohydrates can be added to
Golgi apparatus proteins to form glycoproteins.
Finished products are transported

function in the golgi vesicles.

Centriole Involved in the production of

function spindle fibre and organisation of

chromosomes in cell division
 Lysosome Formed when the golgi apparatus
contains hydrolytic enzymes

structure

A network of fibres found within the

Cytoskeleton cytoplasm all over a cell.

Consists of microfilaments,
microtubules and intermediate
structure fibres
Microfilaments are responsible for
cell movement
Microtubules are responsible for
creating ascaffold-like structure

Cytoskeleton Provides mechanical strength to

cells, and helps to maintain the

function shape and stability of a cell

Small granules in cells made up of

protein and rRNA
Ribosomes are made up of a small
Ribosome and large subunit (80S size in
eukaryotes)

structure
 A type of golgi vesicle that releases
Lysosome lysozymes to hydrolyse pathogens/
cell waste products
function

System of membranes with bound

RER structure ribosomes that is often continuous

with the nucleus

System of membranes with no

SER structure bound ribosomes

Water is polar due to uneven charge

distribution in the molecule
Structure of Hydrogen bonds form between
water molecules

water
 Ribosome
Site of translation in protein
function synthesis

Function: the site of protein

synthesis and glycoprotein
RER function synthesis

Create, store and transport lipids

SER function and carbohydrates

Surrounded by a double membrane

Contains thylakoids, which are
folded membrane containing
Chloroplast pigments
Contains a fluid membrane: the

structure stroma
 Found in plants, algae and fungi
Consists of polysaccharides;
cellulose and plants, chitin in fungi
Cell wall and murein in bacteria
There is a thin boundary layer
structure between adjacent cells called the
middle lamella

Provides structural stength to cells

and prevents cells from bursting
from osmotic pressures
Cell wall function

Polypeptide chains are synthesised

in the RER
Organelles involved These chains are packaged into

in the secretion of vesicles to be sent to the golgi

apparatus via the cytoskeleton

proteins where they are to be modified

The secretory vesicles carry the
protein to the cell membrane to be
released via exocytosis

Prokaryotic cells are smaller

Contrast Prokaryotes have no membrane-
bound organelles

prokaryotic and Prokaryotes have smaller 70S

ribosomes
Prokaryotes have no nucleus-
eukaryotic cells circular DNA is not associated with
histones
Prokaryotic cell wall made of
murein instead of cellulose/ chitin
 Plasmids: loops of DNA
Occasional Capsule surrounding the cell wall:
helps with agglutination and adds

features of protection
Flagella: locomotion

prokaryotes

Calcium ions: muscle contraction

and nerve impulse transmission
Sodium ions: co-transport,
Cations and their reabsorption of water in the kidney
and nerve impulse transmission
Functions Potassium ions: stomatal opening
and nerve impulse transmission
Hydrogen ions: chemiosmosis, pH
and catalysis
Ammonium ions: nitrogen cycle

Nitrate: mineral ion absorption

Hydrogencarbonate: pH
Anions and their Chloride: balance of positive charge
in cells
Functions Phosphate: phospholipids, nucleic
acid, ATP
Hydroxide: catalysis, pH

1. An important solvent in reactions

Properties of 2.
3.
A transport medium
A coolant
4. Provides habitats
water
 Polar, or charged, molecules
dissolve readily in water due to

Water as a water being polar; that is, they are

hydrophilic
Non-polar molecules, such as
solvent lipids, cannot dissolve in water;
that is, they are hydrophobic

Cohesion: water molecules stick

Water as a transport together via hydrogen bonds
Forms a continuous column of
medium water in the xylem of plants

Water has a high specific heat

capacity and a high latent heat of
Water as vaporisation
This is due to the strong hydrogen
a coolant bonds
Internal temperatures of plants and
animals remain constant despite
external fluctuating temperatures
Provides a cooling effect via sweat

Water buffers temperature

therefore provides a stable internal

Water as a environment
cohesion provides surface tension
enabling small invertebrates to live
habitat on water surfaces
Ice is less dense than water due to
the hydrogen bonds and so can
float, providing habitats
 Small, single units that act as
building blocks to create larger
molecules
Monomers

The joining of two smaller monomer

Condensation units to form a chemical bond that
involves the elimination of water
reaction

Hydro (water) lysis (splitting)

A water molecule is added between

Hydrolysis two bonded monomers to break the

chemical bond

reaction

Monosacharide- hexose sugar

Glucose has two structural isomers;

Structure of alpha glucose and beta glucose

The structural difference between
these isomers can be seen on
glucose carbon 1 where the H and OH group
have swapped positions

C1 C1

α glucose β glucose
 Made up of many monomers,
usually thousands, that are
chemically bonded together
Polymers

An isomer of glucose
Alpha glucose The H group is at the top of the
hexose ring
Found in starch and glycogen

Beta glucose An isomer of glucose

The OH group is at the top of the
hexose ring
Found in cellulose

Secondary The protein begins to fold as

hydrogen bonds form within the

protein structure polypeptide backbone

This forms an alpha helice or a beta
pleated sheet
 Formed from two disaccharides
Joined by a glycosidic bond
Formed by a condensation reaction
Disaccharides E.g.
1. Glucose + Glucose -> Maltose
2. Glucose + Galactose -> Lactose
3. Glucose + Fructose -> Sucrose

Polysaccharide in plant cell walls

formed by the condensation of
beta-glucose in which a water

Cellulose molecule is removed to form a 1-4

glycosidic bond

Polysaccharide in animals formed

by the condensation of alpha-
glucose in which a molecule of
water is removed to form 1-4 and
more frequently 1-6 glycosidic
Glycogen bonds, forming a branched
structure

Polysaccharide in plants formed by

the condensation of alpha-glucose
to form 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
contains two polymers- amylose (1-

Starch 4) and amylopectin (1-4 and 1-6)

 Polysaccharide in starch
Composed of alpha-glucose
Joined via 1-4 glycosidic bonds

Amylose Coiled to form a helix

Polysaccharide in starch
Composed of 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic
bonds
Branched in structure
Amylopectin

Insoluble- large molecule = does not

affect osmosis
Properties of Spiral- can be compacted = lots can
fit into a small space

starch Amylopectin is branched = large

surface area for rapid hydrolysis

Insoluble- it is a large molecule.

Properties of This means water potential is not

affected
Large molecule- it cannot leave the

glycogen cell
Highly branched- rapidly hydrolysed
to provide glucose for respiration
 Large number of hydrogen bonds-
strong and so can provide stability
Properties of and rigidity to cell wall
Unbranched due to no 1-6 glycosidic
cellulose bonds

Long, straight chains of beta-

glucose joined via 1-4 glycosidic
bonds through condensation
reactions

Fibrils Held together by many hydrogen

bonds

Formed by the condensation of one

molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids
This forms three ester bonds

Triglyceride
They are non-polar and insoluble in
water (hydrophobic) but can be
dissolved in organic solvents

Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon

chains with a carboxyl group at one
end
They are either saturated or

Fatty acids unsaturated

Saturated Unsaturated
 Triglycerides can transfer energy
Triglyceride They can act as a metabolic water
source
properties They are insoluble in water
They are low in mass

Formed by the condensation of one

molecule of glycerol and two
molecules of fatty acid
Phospholipid They are held together by two ester
bonds
A phosphate group is attached to
the glycerol

Phospholipids are polar molecules

due to the hydrophilic phosphate

Phospholipid 'head' and the hydrophobic lipid

'tail'
This enables the phospholipid to
properties form a bilayer

Cholesterol is a sterol
Sterols have four carbon rings and
a hydroxyl group at one end and

Cholesterol have both hydrophobic and

hydrophilic regions
Cholesterol is embedded within cell
membranes and decreases fluidity
at high temperatures and increases
fluidity at low temperatures
 Polymer chain of a protein
Composed of amino acids in a
sequence

Polypeptide
Bonded by peptide bonds via
condensation reactions

The monomer subunit of a protein

Contains a carboxyl group, amine
group and an R group
They are joined via condensation
Amino acid reactions reactions

COOH group
Made up of a C with a hydroxyl
group (OH) and a carbonyl (double
bonded O) bonded to it

Carboxyl group It is found in amino acids and fatty

acids

NH2 group found on amino acids

Amine group
 R Group on The variable group
The part of each of the 20 amino
acids that is different
amino acids

A secondary structure in proteins

A coiled shape held in place by
hydrogen bonds
Alpha helix

A secondary structure in proteins

A folded, pleated shape
Beta pleated Held in place by hydrogen bonds

sheet

Primary protein The unique sequence of amino

acids in a polypeptide chain
structure
 A bond that forms between the R
group of different amino acids

Ionic bonds Forms in the tertiary structure of

proteins

Weak bond
Forms between H and O
Hydrogen bonds Found in many biological
molecules; e.g. proteins, water, DNA,
tRNA

A strong covalent bond

Forms between two sulfur atoms in
the R groups of different amino
Disulfide bonds acids
Found in the tertiary structure of
proteins

A protein that is made up of more

Quaternary than one polypeptide chain

For example, haemoglobin is made
up of 4 polypeptide chains
protein structure
 A prosthetic group (a non-protein
group) is added to the protein
Conjugated For example, haemoglobin has the
iron prosthetic group added to it
Protein

The polypeptide chain is further

folded
Tertiary protein Into a 3D shape
Held by ionic, hydrophobic,
structure hydrophilic, hydrogen and disulfide
bonds

Polypeptide chains form long

twisted strands linked together
Stable structure
Insoluble in water

Fibrous proteins Strength gives structural function

E.g. collagen in bone and keratin in
hair

Polypeptide chains 'roll up' into a

Globular spherical shape

Relatively unstable structure
Soluble

protein Metabolic functions

E.g. all enzymes, antibodies, some
hormones (such as insulin), and
haemoglobin
 Add Benedict's reagent

Reducing sugar Heat

Observe green/yellow/orange/brick
red precipitate
test

A sugar unable to reduce Cu2+

Non-reducing The glycosidic bond must be
hydrolysed to expose the reducing
sugar group
E.g. sucrose

Sugars that can reduce Cu2+ ions

in Benedict's reagent to Cu+ ions in

Reducing the form of copper (I) oxide

This forms a brick-red precipitate

sugar

Add iodine

Test for Turns blue/black in the presence of

starch

starch
 Add ethanol and shake to dissolve
Then add water
A white emulsion indicates the
Test for presence of lipid

lipids

Add biuret
Turns purple in the presence of
Test for protein

protein

Following a negative Benedict's test

Boil sample in acid and then
neutralise with alkaline

Non-reducing Add Benedict's reagent and heat

Observe orange/ brick red colour

sugar test

Biosensors can also be used to obtain

quantitative results for the
concentration of each biochemical test
1. Single-stranded DNA or protein
complementary to the test sample is
Biosensors immobilised
2. The sample is added and binds
3. This binding causes a change in a
transducer and an electronic current is
released
4. The current is processed to determine
the concentration of sample present
 Identification of molecules present
in the sample can be obtained by

Thin layer calculating the Rf value

chromatography distance moved by solute

Rf =
distance moved by solvent

The monomer of DNA and RNA

Contains a pentose sugar, a

Nucleotide phosphate group and a nitrogenous

base

A nucleotide component

Nitrogenous Nitrogenous bases include adenine,

guanine, cytosine, thymine and
uracil
base

The monomer of DNA

DNA
Contains a deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous
base

nucleotide
 DNA polymer
Many nucleotides joined together
via condensation reactions

Polynucleotide Joined by phosphodiester bonds

Bond joining two nucleotides

together
Phosphodiester Forms between a phosphate group
and the pentose sugar
bond

The base pairs that align opposite

each other and form hydrogen
bonds

Complementary Adenine and thymine/uracil

Guanine and cytosine

base pairs

Pentose sugar

Ribose
Found in RNA nucleotide and ATP
 Uracil
Nitrogenous base
Found in RNA instead of thymine

Bond joining two nucleotides

Phosphodiester together
Forms between a phosphate group
bond and the pentose sugar

Purines are two carbon ring

Purines and structures (e.g. adenine and
guanine)
pyrimidines Pyrimidines are one carbon ring
structures (e.g. cytosine, thymine
and uracil)

Found only in the cytoplasm

Single-stranded but folded to
create a shape that looks like a

tRNA cloverleaf
Held in place by hydrogen bonds
 A copy of a gene
Single-strand polymer of RNA

mRNA

rRNA rRNA combines with protein to

make ribosomes

DNA template A DNA strand that is used to make a

new DNA copy from
strand Both DNA strands in the double
helix are used as templates in DNA
replication

DNA An enzyme in DNA replication

Joins together adjacent nucleotides
polymerase
 Stable structure- covalently bonded
sugar-phosphate backbone and
double helix
DNA structure Double-stranded- semi-
conservative replication can occur
Weak hydrogen bonds- strand
separation during replication

Large molecule- carries lots of

information
DNA function Complementary base pairing-
allows identical copies to be made

1. Homogenise the cell with detergent

to break open cells and release
contents

DNA 2. Filter to remove large debris

3. Add salt filtrate to break hydrogen

precipitation bonds between DNA and water

4. Add protease to digest proteins
associated with the DNA
5. Add ice-cold ethanol to precipitate
the DNA from the solution. The DNA
appears as white strands

Enzyme that breaks hydrogen

bonds between the two chains of
DNA helicase DNA in the double helix
Causes the two strands to separate
Used in DNA replication and
transcription
 ATP contains adenine, the pentose

ATP
sugar ribose and three inorganic
phosphate ion groups
It is an immediate source of energy
for biological processes

The addition of an inorganic

phosphate group to a molecule
This makes the molecule more

Phosphorylation reactive (it gains energy)

For example, ADP can be
phosphorylated to form ATP

ATP + H2O ⇌ ADP + Pi

ATP Enzyme that catalyses the

hydrolysis of ATP into ADP + Pi
hydrolase

ATP Enzyme that catalyses the

synthase synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi

 DNA helicase breaks hydrogen
bonds in double helix
Free-floating nucleotides align
Stages of DNA opposite their complementary base
on the template strand
replication Hydrogen bonds form between base
pairs
DNA polymerase joins adjacent
nucleotides together, forming
phosphodiester bonds

Degenerate genetic Some amino acids are coded for by

more than one triplet of bases
code

Universal The same triplet of bases codes for

the same amino acid in all
genetic code organisms

Non-overlapping Each base in a gene is only part of

one triplet of bases that codes for

genetic code one amino acid.

 Measures light absorbance (how
much light is absorbed) or light
transmission (how much light
Colorimeter passes through) a substance
Colorimetry can be used in any
enzyme-catalysed reaction that
involves colour change

Transcription: the DNA sequence for

Protein one gene is copied into mRNA

Translation: the mRNA joins with a
ribosome and the corresponding
synthesis tRNA molecule brings the specific
amino acid the codon codes for

Introns Sequences of bases in a gene that

do not code for amino acids and
therefore polypeptide chains
These get removed, spliced, out of
mRNA molecules before translation

Sequences of bases in a gene that

Exons codes for sequences of amino acids
 DNA helicase breaks hydrogen
bonds between DNA base pairs
The double helix unwinds
One strand acts as a template
Transcription Free mRNA nucleotides align
opposite complementary bases
RNA polymerase joins adjacent RNA
nucleotides forming
phosphodiester bonds
mRNA is spliced and leaves nucleus

mRNA attaches to small subunit of

ribosome at start codon
tRNA with complementary
anticodon aligns opposite codon
Translation mRNA
Two amino acids are joined via a
peptide bond catalysed by an
enzyme and ATP
Ribosome moves along mRNA until
a stop codon is reached

Active Unique-shaped part of an enzyme

Binds to a substrate

site

Activation The minimum amount of energy

required for a reaction to occur

energy
 Forms when an enzyme and
substrate collide and bind
Enzyme-substrate The result is a lowered activation
energy
complex

When the active site changes shape

Denature This means the substrate can no

longer bind

When an enzyme and inhibitor

Enzyme-inhibitor collide and bind
Prevents the enzyme-substrate
complex complexes from forming

Model stating the enzyme is like a

lock and the substrate is a key
Lock and key The substrate fits into the enzyme
due to the enzyme's specific tertiary

hypothesis
structure
They must both be complementary
to one another to form an enzyme-
substrate complex
 The enzyme active site changes
Induced fit shape slightly to accommodate the
substrate as it binds
hypothesis This puts strain on the substrate
weakening the bonds
Lowers the activation energy

Temperature
Factors affecting pH
Enzyme concentration
enzymes Substrate concentration

At low temperatures, there is

Effect of insufficient kinetic energy for
successful collisions
temperature If the temperature is too high, ionic
and hydrogen bonds break,
on rate of reaction enzymes denature and enzyme-
substrate complexes cannot form

The Q10 temperature coefficient is a

Q10 temperature measure of the rate of change of an

enzyme-controlled reaction as a
result of increasing the
coefficient temperature by 10*C

rate of reaction at (x+10)°C

Q₁₀ =
rate of reaction at x°C
 If there is low concentration of
substrate, the reaction rate will be
Effect of substrate lower because fewer collisions will
occur
concentration on Increasing the substrate
concentration increases the rate of
rate of reaction reaction
At high substrate concentrations,
the rate of reaction will plateau
because all of the enzyme active
sites are saturated

At low enzyme concentrations,

there will be a lower rate of reaction
Effect of enzyme due to less available enzymes for
collisions
concentration on rate Increasing enzyme concentration
will increase the rate of reaction as
of reaction enzyme-substrate complexes are
more likely to form
The rate plateaus at high enzyme
concentrations due to insufficient
availability of substrate

Bind to the enzyme away from the

active site (allosteric site)
Non-competitive Causing the active site to change
shape
inhibitors Enzyme-substrate complexes
cannot form
The rate of reaction is much slower

Competitive inhibitors are a similar

shape as the substrate and so, it

Competitive binds to the active site of the

enzyme
This prevents the substrate from
inhibitors binding
Most competitive inhibitors are
reversible
Once the inhibitor is removed, the
reaction rate increases
 The products of some reactions are
End-product reversible inhibitors for the
enzymes that control the reaction
inhibition If there is a lot of product present, it
will inhibit the enzymes and cause
the reaction to slow or stop
This prevents waste

Coenzymes are organic molecules,

cofactors are inorganic molecules
Their function is to bind to the
Coenzymes and active site of an enzyme to make it
complementary to the substrate
cofactors The inactivated protein is called an
apoenzyme
When it is activated by the binding
of the cofactor, it is called the
holoenzyme

The membranes are described as

Fluid fluid-mosaic
Mosaic due to the mixture of
Mosaic Model phospholipids, glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
Fluid due to the lateral movement
of molecules.

2D, black and white image

Properties of a produced
Can see internal ultrastructure of
the cell
TEM Structures absorb electrons and
appear dark
 Properties of a 3D, black and white images
produced
Electrons scattered across the
SEM specimen depending on contours

Properties of laser The image is created as the

microscope scans the specimen
scanning confocal point-by-point using a focused
laser beam
microscope images 2D or 3D image

The net movement of molecules

from a higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration until
equilibrium is reached
Simple diffusion Molecules move due to the kinetic
energy they possess
This does not require ATP
Molecules must be small and lipid
soluble to diffuse across a
membrane

This is a passive process (does not

Facilitated require ATP)
Carrier proteins and protein

diffusion channels are used to transport ions

and polar molecules across the
membrane
 The movement of water from an
area of higher water potential to an
area of lower water potential across

Osmosis a partially permeable membrane

The water potential is the same in

the solution as it is in the cell
Isotonic solution within the solution
No net movement will occur

The water potential of the solution

Hypertonic solution is more negative than the cell
Water moves out of the cell by
osmosis

The water potential of the solution

Hypotonic is more positive than the cell

Water will move into the cell by
osmosis
solution
 The movement of molecules and
ions from an area of lower
concentration to an area of higher
Active transport concentration (against the
concentration gradient) using ATP
and carrier proteins.
The carrier proteins act as pumps
and are very selective in binding to
substances to be transported

A type of active transport

The cell surface membrane bends
inwards around the molecule
surrounding it to form a vesicle

Endocytosis The vesicle pinches off and moves

within the cytoplasm
This process requires ATP
It can be classed as phagocytosis
when the molecule is a solid or
pinocytosis when the molecule is
liquid

Vesicles move towards the cell-

surface membrane, fuse with the
Exocytosis membrane and the contents of the
vesicle is released outside of the
cell
ATP is required

1) Interphase (G1, S, G2)

2) nuclear division - mitosis or

Cell cycle
meiosis
3) cytokinesis
 Longest stage in the cell cycle
When DNA replicates (S-phase) and
Interphase organelles duplicate while cell
grows (G1&G2-phase)
DNA replicates and appears as two
sister chromatids held by
centromere

One round of cell division

Two diploid, genetically identical
daughter cells
Growth and repair (e.g. clonal

Mitosis expansion)
Comprised of prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase

Chromosomes condense and

become visible
Nuclear envelope disintegrates
In animals - centrioles separate &
Prophase spindle fibre structure forms

Chromosomes align along equator

of cell
Spindle fibres released from poles

Metaphase now attach to centromere and

chromatid
 Spindle fibre contracts (using ATP)
to pull chromatids, centromere
first, towards opposite poles of cell
Anaphase Centromere divides in two

Chromosomes at each pole become

longer and thinner again
spindle fibres disintegrate +
nucleus reforms

Telophase

The division of the cytoplasm to

Cytokinesis create two new cells

Used to determine proportion of

cells undergoing mitosis
Calculated as a percentage OR
Mitotic index decimal

x100 for percentage

 Two nuclear divisions that result in
Meiosis four genetically different haploid
daughter cells

Haploid One copy of each chromosome

Diploid Two copies of each chromosome

Genetic differences Independent assortment of

introduced by homologous chromosomes
Crossing over
meiosis
 Chromosomes condense and
thicken in prophase I

Crossing over Homologous chromosomes pair to

form bivalents
Crossing over can occur between
the chromatids of bivalents
This results in new combinations of
alleles in the resulting gamete

Homologous pairs of chromosomes

line up opposite each other on
either side of the equator during
Independent metaphase I
It is random which side of the

assortment equator the maternal and paternal

pair aligns
As a result, each gamete receives a
different combination of maternal
and paternal chromosomes

These are red blood cells

They have a biconcave shape to
increase the surface area for
diffusion and increase the cell
Erythrocyte flexibility for it to fit through
narrow capillaries
These cells have no nucleus to
maximise oxygen-carrying capacity
They are made from stem cells in
the bone marrow

A type of white blood cell

Neutrophils have a lobed nucleus
and granular cytoplasm
Neutrophils These cells are flexible to enable
them to surround pathogens and
engulf them
They contain lysosomes filled with
the hydrolytic enzyme, lysozyme
 The flagellum contains many
mitochondria to release energy for
locomotion to enable the sperm cell
Sperm cells to move towards the egg cell
The acrosome in the head of the
cell contains digestive enzymes to
digest the wall of the egg cell so the
sperm can penetrate and fertilise
the egg

Located in the mesophyll tissue

layer of leaves
Palisade cells are rectangular,
Palisade cells tightly packed cells that contain
many chloroplasts to absorb and
maximise light energy for
photosynthesis
They have thin cell walls to reduce
the diffusion distance of carbon
dioxide

Cells on the surface of roots

Long projections to increase
surface area for osmosis of water
Root hair cells and active transport of mineral ions
Thin cell wall to reduce the
diffusion distance

These pair of cells have flexible

walls, more so on one side, which
results in the cells bending when
Guard cells turgid to open stomata and closing
when flaccid and this helps control
water loss by transpiration
 Usually only a single layer of flat
cells in contact with the basement

Squamous membrane of epithelium

This provides a short diffusion
distance
epithelial cells

These cells have hair-like

projections that say to move
Ciliated epithelial substances, such as mucus, out of
the lungs, or an egg in the oviduct

cells Goblet cells are also located within

the epithelium and these release
mucus to trap molecules

This is a connective tissue that is

firm and flexible
It is located in the outer ear, nose
and the end of bones
Cartilage It provides structural support and it
prevents the bones from rubbing
together and causing damage
It is made up of collagen and
elastin fibres, and chondrocyte cells
within an extracellular matrix

Composed of tissues that can

contract and relax to create
movement
Muscle Muscles have multiple fibres
connecting with connective tissues
in between
 The cells that make up the part of
the vascular bundle in plants

Xylem responsible for transporting water

and mineral ions
The tissue is made up of elongated,
hollow dead cells, with lignin in the
walls to strengthen and waterproof
the walls
Xylem tissues are made from the
stem cells in the meristem

Form part of the vascular bundle

Transport organic substances made
Phloem in photosynthesis
Made of sieve tube element cells
and companion cells

Cells have perforated end walls

Sieve tube elements Lacking most organelles to make

the transport of sugars easier

Stem cells are undifferentiated

cells that can self-renew
(continually divide) and become
specialised
Stem cells Different types of stem cells have
different differentiation abilities
Totipotent
Pluripotent
Multipotent
Unipotent
 Totipotent cells can divide and
produce any type of body cell
Totipotent cells During development, totipotent
cells transport only part of their
DNA, resulting in cell specialisation
Totipotent cells only occur for a
limited time in mammalian
embryos

Pluripotent cells are found in

embryos and can become almost
Pluripotent cells any type of cell
They are often used in research

Multipotent and Found in mature mammals

unipotent stem Can divide to form a limited
number of different cell types
cells

Stem cells could be used in both

research and medicine:
Potential uses of Repairing damaged tissues
Treatment of neurological
stem cells conditions such as Alzheimer's
and Parkinson's
Research into developmental
biology