Biology

Transition Activities To Prepare For Year 12

Instructions

• For the first section carefully read through the information

• Answer the questions on a separate piece of paper
• Bring your answers into your first lesson at the start of Year 12
• You also need to bring your work on the TED talk , article and Career
Key Information

What if you don’t know a term/phrase in the work?

If you don’t understand a term you can use the internet to search and help you understand it.

Is there a deadline?
Yes – all work needs to be completed and brought with your to your first lesson of year 12.
If you change subjects on enrolment day you will need to do the Transition Unit set for the new subject.

Why do I need to do this?

i. The work will give you an introduction to what Key Stage 5 is like and will help bridge the gap between GCSE and A Level/BTEC but most
importantly it gives you a taste for the subject.

ii. It will also be the first impression your teachers get of you – so make it a good one!
 Overview
Foundations in biology

• Structure of eukaryotic
cells
• Cell organelles
• Specialised cells

• Structure of prokaryotic
cells
• Differences between
eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells
 Overview
Foundations in Biology

• Methods of studying cells

• Optical microscopes
• Electron microscopes
• Magnification calculations
LearnIT!
KnowIT!
2.1 Foundations in biology
2.1.1
• Cell structure
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy

Microscopes allow the sub cellular structures of cells to be examined. The first
compound microscope (using an eye piece lens and an objective lens) was invented
in 1595. The quality of light microscopes has vastly improved since then but it was
the arrival of the electron microscope in 1932 that revolutionised microscopy.

There are two qualities of a microscope that determine what you can see clearly:
Magnification – the number of times bigger the image is than the specimen.
Resolving power (resolution) – the ability to separate the images of small objects
that are close together. If two objects cannot be resolved they will appear as one.

light microscope electron microscope

 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy

Electron microscopes have a higher magnification and resolution than

light microscopes. This means that scientists can see more sub- cellular
structures (structures within the cells).

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Light microscopes image Electron microscopes image
can let us see structures can let us see the internal
like nuclei and structures of a chloroplast and
mitochondria. mitochondrion.
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.

Light microscopes
These microscopes use light to form an image. They have a resolving power of
2µm which is limited by the wavelength of light. They cannot be used to view
very small objects such as ribosomes. Light microscopes can be used to view
living specimens and will show colour images. They have a magnifying power up
to x1500.
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.

Transmission electron microscopes

TEMs use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons. This beam is
transmitted through the specimen. Denser parts of a specimen absorb more
electrons and look darker. TEMs have a very high resolving power (about 0.2nm
at best) and can be used to look at the internal structures of organelles.
Specimens are mounted in a vacuum so must be dead. Images are 2D and black
and white although staining specimens is sometimes used.

TEM image of mitochondria.

 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.

Scanning electron microscopes.

SEMs scan a beam of electrons across the surface of a specimen. The electrons
are collected in a cathode ray tube to form an image. The images show 3D detail.
Like TEMs specimens must be dead and images are black and white although
false colour can be added. SEMs can be used on much thicker material compared
to a TEM but they do have a lower resolving power (about 10nm).
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.

Laser scanning confocal microscopes.

LSCM uses the principles of light microscopy but uses a laser to scan across a
particular ‘slice’ of the specimen. With conventional optical light microscopes,
you can only see as far as the light will penetrate the specimen. LSCM forms an
image at one particular depth. This allows for greater resolutions than with a
traditional light microscope.
Click here to find out more on how scanning confocal microscopes work.
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.
Drawing what you see
• Clear line drawing – no shading
• Label main cell structures
• Add a title and the magnification.
Microscopy Practical guide
Making a wet mount slide e.g. onion cells
• Place a thin section of the specimen onto slide.
• Place a drop of water in the middle of the slide
or stain the specimen.
• Gently lower cover slip onto the specimen
without trapping air bubbles.
• Soak up any excess liquid with a paper towel.
• Switch on the light source and place your slide
on the stage.
• Use the lowest objective lens and turn the
focusing wheel to move the lens close to the
slide.
• Slowly adjust the focusing wheel until you can
see a clear image.
• Increase the magnification by changing the
objective lens and re-focus.
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.

Staining biological specimens.

The purpose of using stains in microscopy is to increase contrast between
different parts of the cell. Certain dyes will turn organelles a specific colour
e.g. haematoxylin will stain a nucleus blue while eosin turns other parts of the
cell pink. The chemical nature of the specimen may determine the choice of
stain e.g. Sudan dyes stain lipids. In A level biology the more common stains
include iodine which binds with starch and makes cell nuclei more visible in
plant cells. Methylene blue is used to view nuclei in animal cells e.g. human
cheek cell preparation.
Electron microscopy also makes use of staining. Heavy metals such as uranium
and lead increase contrast in TEM images. Colour SEM images are usually for
aesthetic effect and the colour is added using the software of the machine.
SEM of
bacteria
using
false
Human cheek cells stained colour.
with methylene blue. Mast cells (light microscope)
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - Microscopy.
magnification = A stage micrometer and eyepiece graticule can
be used to estimate the size of objects under
the microscope.
Eyepiece graticules are etched onto the
eyepiece lens. The stage micrometer is placed
on the stage. The scale on the micrometer is
used to work out the number of divisions one
the graticule at a particular magnification. When
the micrometer is replaced by a slide you can
measure the size of the cells.

A mitochondrion is A chloroplast is The actual size of a

measured as 12mm. measured to be 15mm nucleus is 12µm. The
The magnification is long. The actual size is magnification is x25,000.
x3000. What is the 7µm. Calculate the What is the size of the
actual size of the magnification. image in mm?
mitochondrion? 12 x 25,000
Image size is 12000µm 15mm = 15,000µm = 300,000µm
12000 ÷ 3000 = 4µm 15,000 ÷ 7 = x 2143 = 300mm
 Foundations in biology – The structure of eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and other membrane bound
organelles. These cells include those found in animals, plants and fungi.
Membrane bound organelles include:
 The nucleus
 Nucleolus
 Nuclear envelope
 Mitochondria
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Ribosomes
 Plasma membrane
 Lysosomes
 Chloroplasts
 Centrioles
 Cell wall
 Flagellum
 Cilia
 Foundations in biology – The structure of eukaryotic cells
Nucleus - the largest organelle in a
cell, surrounded by a nuclear
envelope that has nuclear pores. The
nucleus contains the genetic material
(protein bound linear DNA), necessary
for controlling the cells functions.
There is a dense area known as the
nucleolus which is where ribosomes
are manufactured.
Nuclear Plasma membrane - found on the
envelope
Nuclear pore surface of animal cells and just inside the
cell wall of plant cells. Made up of a
phospholipid bilayer with carrier and
Nucleus channel proteins within it.
It’s function is to regulate the movement
Nucleolus of substances in and out of the cell. It
contains receptor molecules which allow
Nucleoplasm Chromatin it to respond to hormones such as insulin.
 Foundations in biology – The structure of eukaryotic cells
The mitochondria (on the left) is an
oval shaped organelle with a double
membrane. The inner membrane is
folded into structures known as cristae.
The inner area is known as the matrix
and contains the enzymes needed for
aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration
produces ATP.

Chloroplasts (on the right) are flattened

structures found in plant and algal cells.
They are surrounded by a double
membrane. They have an internal system
of membranes known as thylakoids
which are stacked to form structures
called grana. These are linked by
lamellae. The function of the chloroplast
is to carry out photosynthesis.
 Foundations in biology – The structure of eukaryotic cells
The Golgi apparatus consists of a series of
flattened sacs surrounded by a membrane.
Vesicles are pinched off from the sacs. It’s
function is to process and package Golgi vesicle
molecules such as proteins and lipids. It
also forms lysosomes. Lysosomes contain
digestive enzymes called lysozymes used to
digest invading pathogens
The endoplasmic Ribosomes are not
reticulum can be rough surrounded by a
(with ribosomes) or membrane. They are
smooth (without made of protein and
ribosomes). The SER RNA and are the site
synthesises and of protein synthesis.
processes lipids. The RER
folds and processes
proteins for transport
around the cell.
 Foundations in biology – The structure of eukaryotic cells

The cell wall is a rigid structure that

surrounds plant, algal and fungal cells. It
supports the cell and prevents it from
changing shape. They can be made of
cellulose, murein or chitin.
cell wall
Centrioles are found in most eukaryotic centriole
cells. They are protein tubules which play flagellum
an important role in forming the spindle
in mitosis. They are also responsible for
forming cilia and flagella.

Cilia (sing. cilium) and flagella (sing. centriole

flagellum) are identical in structure; cilia
cilia generally being shorter and more
numerous. They both have a role in
locomotion e.g. sperm cell (flagellum)
and Paramecium (cilia).
 Foundations in biology - Organelles involved in the production and
secretion of proteins

A number of organelles interact in the ribosome

production and secretion of proteins. The
nucleolus makes ribosomal subunits. The
completed ribosomes then travel to the
cytoplasm and can become attached to
endoplasmic reticulum making it ‘rough’
(RER). Ribosomes are the site of protein
synthesis where amino acids are joined to
form a polypeptide chain. Once the
polypeptide is complete, it travels through
the ER where it is folded and processed.

The protein is packaged into a vesicle which pinches off the

RER and travels through the cytoplasm to the Golgi
apparatus. The vesicles membranes fuse with those of the
Golgi. The protein is then modified, packaged into a vesicle
and sent to another part of the cell or the vesicle fuses
Golgi vesicle
with the plasma membrane and the protein is secreted.
 Foundations in biology - The importance of the
cytoskeleton
Apart from membrane bound organelles, the cytoplasm also has a set of long, thin
fibres called the cytoskeleton. This includes microfilaments made of actin which
allow the cell to contract. They are involved in cytoplasmic streaming and
“pinching” to divide animal cells. Microtubules are formed from the protein
tubulin and can move vesicles around the cytoplasm. They are essential for the
movement of chromosomes during nuclear division.
 Foundations in biology -The structure of prokaryotic cells
Most features of eukaryotic cells also apply to prokaryotic cells, but prokaryotic cells
do differ from eukaryotic cells in a number of ways. One way in which they differ is
that prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, DNA is not associated with proteins
and is present as a circular molecule in the cytoplasm.
The cell surface membrane controls Circular DNA carries
exit and entry of substances in and genes for the
out of the cell proteins the cell
needs. Some
The cell wall is prokaryotes have
made of a small circles of DNA
glycoprotein known as plasmids.
called murein

A slimy capsule Smaller

prevents the cell ribosomes -
from drying out. A flagellum for site of protein
locomotion may synthesis.
be present.
QuestionIT
!
Foundations in biology
2.1.1
• Cell structure
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - QuestionIT

1. Name the following cell organelles.

2. Which organelle is responsible for producing digestive enzymes for

destroying pathogens after phagocytosis has occurred?
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - QuestionIT

3. Complete the following table.

Cell Organelle Function

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Ribosome

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Chloroplast
 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - QuestionIT

4. Name two organelles found in a eukaryotic cell that would not be

present in a prokaryotic cell.

5. State one difference between the cell wall of a plant cell and the cell
wall of a bacterial cell.

6. What is the role of a flagellum?

 Foundations in biology - Cell structure - QuestionIT

7. What is the difference between the magnification and the resolution of a

microscope?

8. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of a TEM.

9. Which type of microscope has been used for the following images?

10. If a bacterial cell is measured as 10mm long and the magnification is

x250,000, what is the actual size of the bacterial cell?
 Super
Curricular • We would like you to listen
to this TED talk and
summarise the key points of

activities
the talk . Come up with at
least 5 points

• https://www.ted.com/talks/
melissa_j_moore_how_mrn
a_medicine_will_change_th
e_world?referrer=playlist-th
e_most_popular_ted_talks_
of_2022&autoplay=true
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Academic reading

https://www.hoddereducationmagazines.com
/magazine/biological-sciences-review/35/4/e
volution-in-the-twenty-first-century/
What did you learn from the article ?
What did you find the most interesting?
What part of Biology do you think this will
link to?
 Careers in Biology

We would like you to research all the careers you can do when you have studied
Biology. Pick your favourite career and write about what you find interesting about it
and what skills you think you need to do that career