UNIT 3: CELL BIOLOGY

Introduction:
This unit consists of the following chapters: Smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms are called cells.
Chapter 4: Cell structure The study of cells is called cell biology (cytology).
Chapter 5: Biological molecules In 1665; An English scientist named Robert Hooke made a simple microscope
Chapter 6: Enzymes and looked at a piece of cork. He observed small, box-shaped structures which is
Chapter 7: Cell membrane called them “cellulae” (the Latin word meaning small rooms). So the word cell
comes from Latin “cellulae”

3.1: Cell Structure

All living organisms are made of cells. Some organisms such as
bacteria have only one cell and said to be unicellular. Others
have millions of cells such as man and said to be multicellular.
All cells are very small, but some of them are just large enough
to be seen with the naked eye. The existence cell was unknown
before the invention of the microscope.
A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too
small for the naked eye.
Each microscope has two abilities:
1. Magnification “ the ability of microscope to increase the
size of an object”
2. Resolution “the ability of microscope to distinguish two
separate points”
There are two types of microscope:
Light microscope Electron microscope
 It uses beams of light.  It uses beam of electrons.
 It has less magnification.  It has high magnification.
 It has less resolution  It has high resolution.
 parts of light microscope:
Objectives of the chapter 4
By the end of this chapter students should be able:
 to describe and interpret the structure of typical animal
and plant cells as seen using the light microscope and the
electron microscope
 to describe the differences and similarities between
animal and plant cells.
 to recognise and explain the functions of rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, chloroplasts,
plasma(cell surface) membrane, centrioles, cilia and the
nucleus (including nuclear envelope and nucleolus)
 to compare and contrast the structure of a prokaryote cell
and the structure of a eukaryotic cell
 to explain how cells are organised into tissues and give
examples of tissues (including squamous epithelium and
ciliated epithelium, xylem and phloem)
1. Base: supports the weight of the microscope.
2. Mirror: directs light to the inside of the microscope.
3. Diaphragm: controls amount of light passing to the condenser.
4. Condenser: concentrate light from source and directs it to the
specimen.
5. Stage: support slide (where the specimen is placed).
6. Clip: holds the slide firmly in place.
7. Objective: this is a system of lenses located near specimen.
They form a magnified image of specimen.
8. Nose piece: attaches the objectives to the body tube. It can
rotate to use desired objective lens.
9. Body tube: holds the nose piece at lower end and eye piece at
upper end.
10. Eye piece: this is system of lenses which magnified further the
image formed by the objective and projects it to the eye.
11. Course adjustment: moves the body tube up and down to
large extant while
12. Fine adjustment: moves body tube up and down very slightly.
13. Specimen: a sample of something.

A light microscope has two system of magnifying lenses (eye piece and objectives). The magnification of eye piece is
constant. On the other hand; most microscopes have three objectives (low, medium and high power objectives). Each of
these has its own magnification.

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For example; the microscope has the following
magnification power. The eye piece x 8, lower power
objective is x 4, medium power objective x 9 and high power
objective is x 43.Ifyou observe your specimen under the
middle power objective, how much would it be magnified?

We can calculate the length of a magnified image (size of image) by using the magnification of the lens. Use the
following equation.

Units for measurements

structure of typical animal cells as seen using the light structure of typical plant cells as seen using the light
microscope: microscope:
Organelles are not clearly visible under light microscope

structure of typical animal cells as seen using the electron microscope:

A large variety of organelles are clearly
visible under the electron microscope

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 structure of typical plant cells as seen using the electron microscope:

 A detailed structure we can see when we use electron microscope is known as ultrastructure.
 Cell theory:
Cell theory states the following three main ideas:
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. Cells are basic structural and functional units in living things
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
 Difference between animal and plant cells: Similarities between animal and
Animal cell Plant cell plant cells
Centrioles Cell wall Both have cytoplasm, nucleus, plasma
Lysosomes chloroplasts membrane, mitochondria, ribosome,
Cilia and flagella a large permanent vacuole Golgi bodies, and endoplasmic
reticulum.

 Cellular components of an animal and plant cell:

Using an electron microscope; the following structures are clearly visible:
 Cell membrane:
The thin skin (about 7nm) which made proteins and lipids that surrounds every cell is known as cell membrane (also known
as plasma membrane or cell surface membrane). However, at very high magnifications, at least × 100 000, it can be seen
to have three layers, described as a trilaminar appearance. It encloses the cell contents, separating them from the external
environment.
− It is a semi-permeable or selective permeable layer because it allows movement of
certain materials in and out of cell. (It allows the entry of required substance e.g. food
&oxygen and exit of waste materials but prevents the entry of unnecessary materials)
The cell membrane of a cell has two main functions:
1. It stops the cell contents from escaping.
2. Controls the exchange of materials between the cell and its environment.
N.B: Structure of cell membrane is discussed further in 3.3.

 Cytoplasm:
Cytoplasm is the portion between the nucleus and the cell membrane. It contains structures floating in a thick liquid. These
structures are called organelles (carry out specific functions within the cell) e.g. ribosomes and mitochondria. Fluid parts
of cytoplasm is known as cytosol (contain water and dissolved solutes e.g. carbohydrate, protein, amino acids and etc.).
Functions of cytoplasm:

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  Nucleus:
The nucleus is the largest and the most important of the cell organelle.
Almost all cells have a nucleus. Two important exceptions are red blood cells in
mammals, and phloem sieve tubes in plants. It surrounded by two membranes
with a small gap between them.
- The two membranes of the nucleus are known as the nuclear envelope. (its
separates the contents of nucleus from the rest of the cell). There are small gaps all
over the envelope, called nuclear pores. (It allows and control exchange between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm)
 Examples of substances leaving the nucleus through the pores are mRNA
and ribosomes for protein synthesis.
 Examples of substances entering through the nuclear pores are proteins
(help make ribosomes), nucleotides and ATP
The nucleoplasm (nuclear sap) is the semi-fluid substance that surrounds the nuclear
envelope and it contains chromatin. Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes
during cell division. The chromatin contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the
molecule of inheritance which controls the activities of the cell.
The nucleus also contains one or more densely staining bodies known as
nucleoli (sing; nucleolus).The nucleolus manufactures ribosomes by using
the information in its own DNA.
Functions of nucleus:
 It controls all activities of the cell.  It is essential for cell division.

 Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are sausage shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm and are
surrounded by two membranes an (envelope). The outer is smooth whereas the
inner is folded to form finger-like structure known as cristae.
The space between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space.
The interior is filled with fluid is called matrix.
Mitochondria contain many enzymes which catalyze the oxidation of food (aerobic
respiration) and also contain circular DNA.
The main function of mitochondria is
 It’s produce energy (make ATP). “ATP is energy carrying molecule in the cell”
 Endoplasmic reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum is organelle which consist network of membranous sacs like structures found in cytoplasm of the cell.
It is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth.
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER has ribosomes present)
- It responsible for the synthesis of proteins.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER does not have ribosomes present )
- It responsible for the synthesis of lipids.
“SER has different roles in different cells. For example, in cells in the ovary and testis it is the site of production of steroid
hormones such as oestrogen and testosterone. In liver cells, it is the place where toxins are broken down and made harmless”
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum:
- It makes (synthesize) protein.
- It makes (synthesize) lipid.
 Golgi apparatus:
The Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) isa stack of flattened membrane bound sacs like organelle found in cytoplasm of the cell.
This flattened sac of Golgi body is called cisternae. Cisternae of Golgi body can be separated into 3 parts:
1. Cis (cisternae nearest the endoplasmic reticulum),
2. Medial (central layers of cisternae),
3. Trans (cisternae farthest from the endoplasmic reticulum).
In Golgi apparatus; the proteins and lipids from ER are received at the cis face and released at the trans face.

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The Golgi apparatus is not a stable structure; it is constantly changing. The stack is constantly being formed at one end from
vesicles which bud off the ER, and at the other end, the sacs break down, forming vesicles that move away from the Golgi
apparatus this known as Golgi vesicles.
In the Golgi apparatus, these proteins are packaged and processed, changing them into the required product.
 Some of the processed proteins are then transported, in vesicles
that buds off from the Golgi apparatus, to the plasma membrane.
Here, the vesicles fuse with the membrane and deposit the proteins
outside the cell, in a process called exocytosis.
- The production of useful substances in a cell and their
subsequent release from it is called secretion.
 Some vesicles, however, remain in the cell. Some of these contain
proteins that function as digestive enzymes, and such vesicles are
called lysosomes.
Functions of Golgi apparatus (golgi body):
 It processes and modifies the proteins and lipids.
 It also packages and transport processed materials.
 It produces lysosomes.
 Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are dark spherical vesicles found in the cytoplasm. It surrounded by a single
membrane. They contain hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes known as lysozyme.
They fuse with other vesicles in the cell that contain something that needs to be digested.
- The head of a sperm cell contains a special type of lysosome called an
acrosome, whose enzymes digest an egg just before fertilization takes place.
Functions of lysosome:
 It digest protein, carbohydrate and lipids
 it digesting organelles that no longer needed
 it destroy old and damaged cells.
Ribosomes:
Ribosomes are tiny organelles which made of RNA (ribonucleic acid) and protein found in the cytoplasm of the cells.
They are very small; only about 25nm in diameter and its site of protein synthesis.
They can be found free in the cytoplasm as well as attached on the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to form rough ER.
Ribosome consists of two ribosomal sub units:
1. Small ribosomal subunit(it binds and read the mRNA)
2. Large ribosomal subunit (it attaches amino acids with another to form a polypeptide)

Its nucleolus where synthesis of ribosome occurs. “Ribosomal proteins enter the nucleolus and combine with the rRNA
strands to create the two ribosomal subunits (one small and one large) that will make up the completeribosome”
- A structure of many ribosomes attaches to the same mRNA strand is known as a polysome.
Function of ribosome: - Its synthesize (makes) all variety of proteins.
 Cell wall:
A cell wall is a rigid layer polysaccharides surround each plant cell. This is not an organelle because it’s not inside the cell.
- It is made up cellulose. “The cellulose fibres are very strong and arranged in a criss-cross manner, held together by a matrix
that contains pectin” - It is non-living and allows water and It has no direct effect on the movement of molecules into
or out of the cell. For reason is said to be full/ freely permeable.
A layer which lies between the cell walls of two adjacent cells are known as middle lamella(it cement and hold two
neighboring plants). This also made up of pectin “Calcium Pectate”
A narrow channel like thread of cytoplasm that passes through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells which known as
Plasmodesmata (It facilitate the exchange of materials between plant cells)
Main function of the plant cell wall are:
 It Protects the plant cells from insects and pathogens
 Prevent plant cell swelling and bursting “when it absorbs more water by osmosis”
 Keep the shape of the plant.

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  Plastids:
Plastids are many various organelles found only plant cells. It has double membranes. There are three different
types of plastids:
1. Chromoplasts: is a plastid containing red, orange or yellow pigments such
as carotenoids” found in mainly flowers and ripening fruits.
 It responsible mainly the colour of the flower.
 It also gives the ripe fruits their red, orange and yellow colour.
2. Chloroplast: is plastid with green color which found in photosynthetic area of plants and algae.
 It makes food by photosynthesis.
3. Leucoplast: is a white plastids found in roots. - It stores starch.
 Chloroplast:
Chloroplast is a large organelle in which found in only cytoplasm of plants and protest (algea). Like mitochondria,
they are surrounded by two membranes, forming the chloroplast envelope. Also like mitochondria, chloroplasts
replicate themselves independently of cell division by dividing into two.
It also contains gel like matrix known as stroma.
 It’s where the dark reactions of photosynthesis take place.
A system of flattened, membranous sacs within the stroma called thylakoids,
which contain chlorophyll. The stack of thylakoids is called grana.
 It’s where the light reactions of photosynthesis take place.
 Chlorophyll is green chemical pigment found in chloroplast.
 It traps light energy for photosynthesis
Function of chloroplast: - Its site of photosynthesis.
 Vacuole:
Vacuole is a large central membranous sac found in cytoplasm of plant cell. It is surrounded by a single membrane
called tonoplast (vacuolar membrane).
- It separates the vacuolar contents from the cell's cytoplasm.
The fluid filled this space called cell sap, which contains water, sugar, sugars, salts,
waste products and sometimes pigments.
Function of vacuole:
 It helps to keep plant cells firm
 It responsible storage of food (such as salts and sugars)
 Cytoskeleton:
Just as your body depends on your skeleton to maintain its shape and size, so a cell needs structures to maintain its shape and size.
Internal framework which made long protein filaments found in cytoplasm of cell is called cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton consists of three structures:
Structure Function
1. Microfilaments It’s a solid contractile strandsabout 7 nm in  Muscle contraction
diameter. “May be several cm long (muscle  Changes in cell shape
cells).  Cytoplasmic streaming
It’s made up actin (most) and myosin protein.  Movement of pseudopodia
2. Intermediate filament It is strong supercoiled strands which have an  Maintenance of cell shape
average diameter of 8 to 10 nm.  Attachment of microfilament in muscle
It’s made up many different fibrous proteins. cells.
 It supports nerve cell processes (axon)
 It anchor the nucleus and other organelles
in place
3. Microtubules It is a long, rigid, hollow tube about 25nm in  Movement of chromosomes during cell
diameter. division
It’s made of a protein called tubulin.  Movement of organelles within
Tubulin has two forms, α-tubulin (alpha- cytoplasm
tubulin) and β-tubulin (beta-tubulin).  Movement of cilia and flagella
Functions of cytoskeleton:
- It maintains the shape of the cell. - It helps the animal cell mobility.
- It anchors cell’s organelles in their position.

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  Cilia and flagella:
Some cells have hair like projections on their surfaces. When the projections are short and numerous; they are called cilia(Latin
for eyelash) and when they along and few; they are called flagella(Latin for whip).
They are found in some animal cells, and rarely in plant cells – s ome primitive plants such as liverworts and mosses produce
male gametes that swim using flagella.
Cilia and flagella have the same basic structure. Cilia and flagella contain microtubules,
always arranged in a 9 + 2 arrangement – that is, with two microtubules in the centre
surrounded by a ring made up of nine pairs of microtubules.
Functions of cilia and flagella:
 They assist /produce movement.
 Centriole:
A centriole is a paired cylindrical structures located near center of cell.
They are located in the region is known as centrosome.
- Centrioles and the centrosome are absent from most plant cells.
Centrioles contain nine microtubule triplets, arranged in a cylinder.
Function of centrioles:
 It forms spindle fibres for nuclear division.
 Prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell:
There are two fundamentally different types of cell and they are:
1. Prokaryotic cell is a cell which lack of nucleus. . (pro means before; karyon means nucleus)
2. Eukaryotic cell is a cell which have nucleus.(Eu means true; karyon means nucleus).
All cells (both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells) have three components:
1) Cytoplasm 2) Plasma membrane 3) Genetic materials.
Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Average diameter of cell is 0.5nm Cells commonly up to 40nm
diameter
DNA is circular and lies free in the DNA is not circular and lies in
cytoplasm the nucleus
(Special region is nucleoid)
DNA is naked DNA is associated with protein
Slightly smaller ribosomes Slightly larger ribosomes
No ER presents ER present
Very few cell organelles Many types of cell organelle
present.
Cell wall always present Cell wall sometimes present
 So that; Prokaryotes: Organisms whose cells lack nuclei. For example
bacteria while Eukaryotes: Organisms whose cells possess nuclei and
include animals, plants, and fungi and a group containing most of the
unicellular eukaryotes known as protoctists.

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