GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

CELL THEORY 2. Mechanical Part – consists of all the knobs in the

CELL - the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in microscope.
living things. 3. Magnifying Part – consists of the ocular/eyepiece and
THEORY - general or abstract principles of a body of fact. the objective lenses.
MICROSCOPE - instrument used to magnify objects too small to
be seen with the naked eye.

CELL THEORY - the explanation of the relationship between

cells and living organisms.

THE SCIENTISTS
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1647)
● He made monocular microscopes (simple microscope)
and was the first person to observe bacteria and
protozoa “animalcules”
● Father of MICROBIOLOGY (study of the biology of
microscopic organism)

ROBERT HOOKE (1665)

● Hooke was the first to identify cells and name them. Parts of the microscope:
● He named them cells because they look like small Eyepiece (Ocular Lens) – also known as the ocular. This is the
rooms where monks used to sleep in monasteries. part used to look through the microscope. It's found at the top of
● Father of CYTOLOGY (study of cells) the microscope. Its standard magnification is 10x.

SCIENTISTS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO THE CELL THEORY Body tube – It carries the eyepiece just above the objective
lens.
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838)
● He was the first to note that plants are made up of
Arm - The arm joins the body tube to the microscope lenses.
cells.
● “ALL PLANTS ARE MADE UP OF CELLS”
Objective lenses – These are the major lenses used for
specimen visualization. They have a magnification power of 4x-
THEODOR SCHWANN (1839)
100X. There are about 1- 4 objective lenses placed on one
● “ALL ANIMALS ARE MADE UP OF CELLS”
microscope, in that some are rare facing and others face
● He concluded that all living things are made up of
forward. Each lens has its own magnification power.
cells.
● Scanner (red) - 4x
● Low Power Objective (yellow) - 10x
RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1855)
● High Power Objective (blue) - 40x
● He proposed that all cells come from pre-existing
● Oil Immersion (white) - 100x
cells.
● “Omnis cellula e cellula”
Revolving Nosepiece – It holds the objective lenses. This
allows the user to turn it to achieve various levels of
THE 3 BASIC STATEMENTS OF THE CELL THEORY magnification. You know that the lens is in place when you hear
1. Every organism is made up of one or more cells a ‘click!’.
2. Cell is the smallest basic unit of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells The Adjustment knobs – These are knobs that are used to
focus the microscope. There are two types of adjustment knobs:
THE MICROSCOPE ● Fine adjustment knobs - It fine-tunes (sharp focus)
HANS LIPPERSHEY the focus and improves the detail in the sample. This
● He is the one who made the first telescope (patent). knob is used to raise and lower the body tube but more
HANS & ZACHARIAS JANSEN (1500) slowly and in a more controlled manner under higher
● Father and Son who made the FIRST COMPOUND magnifications.
MICROSCOPE. ● Coarse adjustment knobs - This brings the sample
into focus. For rapid control of the body- moves the
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE: body tube and down in a quick manner. Only used for
1. Light Microscope (uses visible light) LPO and Scanner Objective Lenses.
2. Confocal Microscope (uses beams of lasers)
3. SEM/TEM - Electron Microscope (uses electrons) Stage – This is the section in which the slide is placed for
4. Scanned Microscope viewing. They have stage clips that hold the specimen slides in
place. The most common stage is the mechanical stage, which
PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE allows the control of the slides by moving the slides using the
There are three main parts of the microscope: mechanical knobs on the stage instead of moving them
1. Illuminating Part– consists of the mirror, iris manually.
diaphragm and condenser.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

Iris Diaphragm - controls the amount of light passing through to Cell membrane is the outer part of a cell. It separates
illuminate the specimen. the interior of the cell from the outside environment.

Condenser - Found in the upper part of the diaphragm; this These are examples of organelles without the cell membrane
receives the light coming from the mirror. (no protection):
● CYTOPLASM is a gel-like liquid inside the cell that
Mirror - this part reflects external light up through the bottom of supports and suspends cellular molecules and
the stage. organelles.
● Concave Mirror - light is refracted, spreads more, low ● RIBOSOMES are tiny complexes that synthesize
amount of light proteins and create the genetic material (DNA).
● Convex Mirror - reflects light, one point (direction of
light), high amount of light THE KINGDOMS OF CLASSIFICATION
THE PROKARYOTES:
Base- It acts as microscope support/foundation. This is where ARCHAEBACTERIA
the mirror is placed. ➢ “Archaic” means old. This kingdom existed a long time
ago.
How to properly hold the microscope?
➢ The first living organism
The proper way to carry a microscope is to grasp the
➢ They live in an extreme environment.
arm of the microscope with your dominant hand, lift the
microscope up slowly, and use your other hand to firmly hold the ➢
These are types of ARCHAEBACTERIA:
base to stabilize the microscope as you transport it to your
Thermophiles - bacteria that loves heat
station.
Methanogens - produce and loves methane
Halophiles - salt-loving bacteria
How to calculate total magnification?
Acidophiles - bacteria that loves acids (stomach acid)
𝑻𝑴
= 𝒐𝒃𝒋. 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒙 𝒐𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 EUBACTERIA
➢ Can be found everywhere
Additional Notes:
➢ Only EUBACTERIA can cause infections and
Resolution - the ability of the lenses to distinguish detail and
diseases.
structure
Refractive Index - the light bending ability of the medium
THE EUKARYOTES:
ANIMALIA consists of all animals
PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS PLANTAE consists of all plants
FUNGI consist of organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot
make their own food) and have important roles in nutrient
cycling in an ecosystem
PROTISTA consists of single-celled organisms such as the
protozoa and parasites.

PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

Capsule: allows prokaryotes to cling to surfaces.
Cell Wall: an outer covering that protects the bacterial cell and
gives it shape.
Cytoplasm: a gel-like substance composed mainly of water that
also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various
PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS organic molecules.
Cell Membrane: surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates
● Smaller (0.1 to 5 ● Bigger (5 to 100 the flow of in and out of the cell.
micrometers in micrometers) Pili (Pilus-singular)- Sex Pili: Hair-like structures on the
diameter) ● Has a Nucleus surface of the cell that attach to other bacterial cells. It is also
● No Nucleus ● Can be unicellular or used for movement and to attach cells to the surface.
● Unicellular (one cell) multicellular Flagella: are long, whip-like protrusions that aid in cellular
● No membrane-bound ● With membrane-bound locomotion.
organelles organelles Ribosomes: cell structures responsible for protein production
● Simplest Cell ● Complex Cell and genetic material.
Nucleoid Region: particular area in which prokaryotes
assemble their genetic material (DNA).

Additional information (GEN BIO 2):

Both of these cells have (1) DNA, (2) CYTOPLASM, (3)
CONJUGATION PROCESS (sexual reproduction) - the process by
RIBOSOMES, and (4) CELL MEMBRANE.
which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct
contact (through the help of the pilus). During conjugation, one bacterium

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

serves as the donor of the genetic material, and the other serves as the
recipient. The messenger RNA (mRNA), is a molecule in cells
that carries codes from the DNA in the nucleus to the sites of
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS protein synthesis in the cytoplasm (the ribosomes).
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life forms THE NUCLEUS
CELL DIVERSITY
★ CELL SHAPE DEPENDS UPON FUNCTION!

Sickle cell disease is a group of inherited red blood cell

disorders that affect hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen
through the body.
- Oxygen is not enough
- Can be inherited

Largest Cell: Ovum/Egg Cell of an Ostrich

Longest Cell: Giraffe’s Nerve Cell
Smallest Cell: Sperm Cell

ORGANELLES derived from the word ‘organ’ and refers to

compartments within the cell that perform a specific function.
● A subcellular structure that has one or more specific
jobs to perform in the cell, much like an organ does in NUCLEUS sends controls/commands and regulates the
the body. activities of the cell, and carries the genes (DNA), structures that
contain the hereditary information.
THREE PARTS FOUND IN ALL TYPES OF CELLS ● Nuclear Envelope/Membrane protects the inner part
of the nucleus from the outer part (cytoplasm)
● Nuclear Pores are for the transportation of DNA and
protein material. It allows molecules to pass through.
● Nucleolus is for the ribosomal biogenesis (production
of ribosomes) - contains RNA.
● Chromatin is a complex of DNA and proteins that
forms chromosomes (contains the genetic material)
○ Chromosomes have sister chromatids.
● Nucleoplasm is a gel-like structure inside the nucleus.
This supports chromatin.
CELL MEMBRANE (plasmalemma or plasma membrane) ○ Nuclear sap, karyoplasm (karyo:nucleus)
controls what enters/leaves the cell. It also protects the cell from ○ This is where you can find/store the DNA.
the outside environment.
THE OTHER ORGANELLES
★ Bilayer of phospholipids
(phosphate-head + lipids-tail)
and proteins. (The phosphate
is hydrophilic, while lipids are
hydrophobic)

★ semipermeable (or
selectively permeable): it
only allows selected molecules
to go in or out the cell.

CYTOPLASM maintains cell shape (cytoskeleton). The

semifluid, jellylike substance is called cytosol. This is where the
subcellular components are suspended.
● This is where metabolic processes happen:
○ CATABOLISM - large to small molecules
○ ANABOLISM - small to large molecules
★ Without the cytoplasm, the cell would shrink.
RIBOSOMES are protein factories/synthesizes proteins. These
transform amino acids (monomers) to proteins (polymers).
● Free Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm
● Attached Ribosomes are found in the rough ER
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM carries materials throughout the
cytoplasm - transport system.
● ROUGH ER: with ribosomes, RER helps in the
production, folding, quality control and dispatch of
proteins (synthesizes proteins)
● SMOOTH ER: without ribosomes, lipid manufacture,
metabolism, steroid production, and detoxification, this
also produces peroxisomes (an organelle produced
by SER that helps in detoxification)

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023
○ Peroxisome function: for the production and
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
○ Sarcoplasmic Reticulum is for the storage of
calcium ions. This can be found in the
muscles because it’s for the contraction.
GOLGI BODY/APPARATUS’ function is to modify, sort and
package materials.
● CIS FACE - the receiving area
● TRANS FACE - the shipping/transportation area
○ Transportation Vesicles (organelle) help
move materials, such as proteins and other
molecules, from one part of a cell to another.
Organelles derived from the GOLGI BODIES:
1. Vesicles
2. Lysosomes (found only in animal cells)
MITOCHONDRIA (singular: mitochondrion) is the
powerhouse of the cell. It is also involved in releasing energy
from food, this process is known as cellular respiration.
Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE
LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL
★ They generate the majority of our adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell.
★ Mitochondria runs on glucose for energy requirements.
FUN FACT: Mitochondria comes from the cytoplasm in the egg cell
during fertilization, therefore, our mitochondria is passed down from our
mothers..
VACUOLES are fluid filled sacs for storage. It is surrounded by
a single membrane called tonoplast. Think of it as a container.
Three Types of Vacuoles:
● LARGE CENTRAL VACUOLE - only found in plant
cells. It also stores water, minerals & food. It also
maintains the cell's turgidity (main pressure of the cell
contents against the cell wall in plant cells and bacteria cells,
determined by the water content of the vacuole)
● CONTRACTILE VACUOLE - it expels excess water,
can be found in protists.
● FOOD VACUOLE – it is mainly for food storage
CYTOSKELETON is the internal framework of the cell. It
consists of protein filaments.
● MICROFILAMENTS are for muscle contractions and
cellular movement
○ Contains actin and myosin protein molecules
for muscle contractions.
○ Cellular Movement = Cytokinesis is the part
of the cell division process during which the
cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides
into two daughter cells.
● INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS is important for
strength, structure and support for organelles.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023
● MICROTUBULES participate in the formation of
spindle fibers (during cell division-mitosis) and for
locomotion.
○ They are major components of cilia and
flagella (singular: flagellum- cellular
locomotory projections).
NOTE: Both microfilaments and microtubules are involved in cell division
or mitosis.
ORGANELLES ONLY FOUND IN ANIMAL CELLS
LYSOSOME contains digestive enzymes that help break down
larger molecules in the cell. It breaks down food, bacteria and
worn out cells. Lysosomes derived from golgi bodies.
● Exocytosis (exo = external, cytosis = transport mechanism)
is a form of bulk transport in which materials are transported
from the inside to the outside of the cell in membrane-bound
vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.
CENTROSOMES are made up of microtubules. They appear
during cell division to pull chromosome pairs.
● Centrioles are cylindrical organelles composed mainly
of a protein called tubulin.
● Centrosomes connect spindle fibers, as well as it
initiates the formation of the spindle (hook at the center
of the centrosome)
Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE
LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL
ORGANELLES ONLY FOUND IN PLANT CELLS
CHLOROPLAST synthesizes food by the process of
photosynthesis. It absorbs light energy and converts it into
chemical energy.
● Chloroplast has a structure called chlorophyll (green
because it reflects green light) which functions by
trapping the solar energy and is used for the synthesis
of food in all green plants.
CELL WALL provides the plant cell with both structural support
and protection. It also maintains the cell’s shape. Cell walls
provide the rigidity to plant cells.
PLASMODESMATA are bridges between plant cells. It enables
transport and communication between them.
● Directly connects the cytoplasm of neighboring plant
cells to each other
THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
The ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM is a group of
membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together
to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. All these
organelles work in coordination and they include the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), vesicles, golgi bodies, plasma
membrane.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

CELL AND TISSUE TYPES mammary glands

Biological Levels of Organization: organelle, cells, tissue, (gland=secretion)
muscle, organs, organ system, organisms, population,
communities, ecosystem, biosphere

TISSUES - are groups of cells that have a similar structure and COLUMNAR
act together to perform a specific function. ● taller than they are wide
● classified into ciliated
These are some cell types found in the human body: columnar epithelium and
● Brain Cells glandular columnar epithelium
● Liver Cells (hepatocytes) ● nucleus is elongated and
● Muscle Cells (myocytes) often found near the base
● for secretion and active
● Blood Cells (hematocytes)
absorption
● Intestinal Cells
● lining the pharynx, sex organs,
and respiratory tract
Categories of FOUR ANIMAL TISSUES:
1. Epithelium Additional info for columnar epithelium tissue:
2. Connective Microvilli
3. Muscle ● for absorption of nutrients
4. Nervous and protects the body from
intestinal bacteria
WIth Microvilli ● Found mostly in the
EPITHELIUM
digestive system/track
EPITHELIUM TISSUES - lines, covers, and protects tissues and
organs (protective layer)
Cilia
● Cells are tightly junked together with basement ● for locomotion or filtration
membranes for secretion ● hair-like structure
● Classified by the number of layers and by the shape
and function of the cell. Ciliated Goblet cells
Remember the functions of the epithelium: ● column-shaped cell found
P - protection in the respiratory and
A - absorption intestinal tracts, which
S - secretion secretes the main
S - sensation component of mucus.

With goblet cells

Excretion vs Secretion:
Secretion is a process of movement of materials internally – such
as hormonal secretion, mucosal secretion, lubrication protection, etc.
Excretion is the process of waste removal from the body. Excretion
is also a process of eliminating or ejecting anything that is no longer
useful.
Based on the cell shape:
CELL DESCRIPTION
SQUAMOUS
● distinctively flat and scale-like
● it's wider than tall
● appear polygonal when
viewed atop
● nucleus can be found at
anywhere
● lining of the mouth and
esophagus, blood vessels, and
alveoli
● for exchange of materials
CUBOIDAL
● cube shaped
● for secretory, absorptive or
excretory functions
● nucleus at the center
● lining the collection ducts of
kidney, pancreas, salivary
glands, sweat glands and
TRANSITIONAL
● can change from squamous
to cuboidal, depending on the
tension of the epithelium
● forms the muscular lining of
the uterus, portion of the
urethra, and the urinary
Transitional Epithelium bladder.
● important for
expansion/contraction.
Based on the number of layers:
CELL DESCRIPTION
SIMPLE
● One layer only. Each
cell extends from the
basement membrane to
the free surface.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
● Cells are of different
heights, all do not reach
surface, nuclei are at
different levels, but all
cells contact basement
(single layers of cells,

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

usually lined with cilia)

● Fake layers
● Cells overlaps with each
other
● Always columnar

STRATIFIED Transitional Lines the bladder, Allows the

● two or more cells in epithelium urethra, and the urinary organs to
thickness or ureters expand and
multilayered stretch

Based on SHAPE + LAYER:

CONNECTIVE
CELL LOCATION FUNCTION
CONNECTIVE TISSUES - provides structure, support and
Simple squamous Air sacs of lungs Allows materials “space filler”
epithelium and the lining of to pass through ● Can be solid (bone), soft (loose connective tissue) or
the heart, blood by diffusion and liquid (blood)
vessels and filtration, and ● Classified into THREE large groups:
lymphatic vessels secretes
lubricating ○ Connective Tissue Proper
substance ○ Supportive Connective Tissue
○ Fluid Connective Tissue
Simple cuboidal In ducts and Secretes and
epithelium secretory portions absorbs I. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
of small glands
1. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and in kidney
tubules

Simple columnar Ciliated tissues are Absorbs; it also

epithelium in bronchi, uterine secretes mucus
tubes, and uterus; and enzymes
smooth
(nonciliated
tissues) are in the
digestive tract.
bladder

Pseudostratified Ciliated tissue Secretes mucus;

columnar epithelium lines the trachea ciliated tissue
and much of the moves mucus
upper respiratory
tract

Composed of:
● ELASTIN - for elasticity and resilience to the
Stratified squamous Lines the Protects against tissues
epithelium esophagus, abrasion ● FIBROBLAST - for support and connection of
mouth, and vagina
other tissue/organs
● COLLAGEN - provide structure, strength and
support

Stratified cuboidal Sweat glands, Protective tissue Function:

epithelium salivary glands,
and the mammary ● For support, protection, houses blood vessels
glands supplying the epithelium
Location:
● Deep to epidermis (top layer of skin)
● Walls of hollow organs
Stratified columnar The male urethra Secretes and ● Membranes lining body cavities
epithelium and the ducts of protects
some glands
2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
TISSUE DESCRIPTION

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

● serves as insulation to help maintain my

DENSE IRREGULAR
body temperature
● has irregular arranged
● functions as cushioning against damage to
collagen fibers
● collagen fibers have the body organs
good tensile strength ● deep to the skin, surround the hearts
● found in the deepest abdominal organs
layer of skin (deepest
dermis) and around II. SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
joints and organs CARTILAGE
● a firm tissue but is softer and more flexible than bone
REGULAR COLLAGENOUS
● mainly made of type I
collagen fibers
(provides strength and
flexibility to the bone)

REGULAR ELASTIC
● dominated by elastin
fibers
● found in the parts of the
body that need tissue
with an ability to stretch
● found in lungs and
arteries
3. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Categorized in three types:
A. Hyaline Cartilage
● helps bones move smoothly
● flexible but strong enough to keep joints in place
● between bones in joints, between sternum and ribs,
respiratory tract

B. Elastic Cartilage
● more flexible than hyaline
● supports body that parts of require to bend and
move to function
● Involves in producing and detecting sounds

● with reticular fibers and lymphocytes (type C. Fibrocartilage

of white blood cell) ● tough and inflexible form of cartilage
● form internal structure of many organs ● resists strong forces of compression and
● supports smaller vessels and nerves tension
● found in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, ● found in knee wrist and between vertebrae
basement membrane
BONE
3. ADIPOSE ● osseous tissues (bone tissue)
● With organic (collagen and elastic fiber) and inorganic
matrix (NaCl and Ca+)
● Support, protection, movement and stores calcium.

III. FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

BLOOD
● transports nutrients, hormones, gasses and wastes
● involved in defending the body against both infectious
disease and foreign materials
● Coagulation (clotting) of the blood

MUSCLE
MUSCLE
● contractile tissues for movement.
● made up of adipocytes (fat cells)
● contains actin and myosin (microfilaments) involved in
● collects and stores fats
contraction

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 Transcribed by: EUNESS ALDENESE

2ND SEMESTER, QUARTER 3 | S.Y. 2022-2023 LECTURER: MS. MARY LOU N. BOGÑALBAL

There are three types:

a. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
● long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells, and
with striations.
● voluntary movement and control,
manipulation of facial environment,
expression.
● Attached to bones or to skin.

b. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

● branching, striated, generally uninucleate
cells.
● generates enough contractile force for the
heart to beat effectively; involuntary control of
the heart
● The walls of the heart

c. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

● spindle-shaped cells with a central nucleus.
● elastic; important in expansion of organs
● located in kidney, lungs, vagina and other
walls of hollow organs

NERVE

NERVE TISSUE
● located in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
● transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors
and to effectors (muscles and glands) which control
their activity.
● promotes muscle contraction, plays a major role in
emotions, memory and reasoning and raises
environmental awareness

- END OF QUARTER -
GOOD LUCK <3

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