MODULE 1
until the number 64 lines up with the
HUMAN HISTOLOGY
LABORATORY INTRODUCTION
HISTOLOGY
- Study of the tissues of the body and
how these tissues are arranged to
constitute organs.
- Also referred as Microscopic
Anatomy as cells and tissues are
studied using a light microscope and
even using an electron microscope.
HISTOLOGIC SECTION
- Undergoes all phases of histologic
processes, mounted on a microscopic
slide.
HISTOLOGIC STUDIES
- Can be conducted using tissue
culture.
TISSUE CULTURE
- Live animal cells are isolated and
maintained in an artificial environment
for various researches.
BASIC MICROSCOPE SET UP & USE
PART 1. SETTING UP THE
MICROSCOPE
- Retrieve the microscope. Carry it
using both hands. One holding arm
and the other holding the base of the
microscope.
- Unwind the cord from the back of the
microscope and plug it in.
- Turn on the power switch.
Check the ocular lenses and turn them
white line.
- Check the condenser lens below the
stage.
- Put the objective lens on low power
and move the stage to its highest
position.
- Adjust light to medium or medium
high range. You can adjust the light
later according to your preference.
PART 2.USING THE MICROSCOPE
- Open the clip on the stage with one
hand and slide the microscope slide to
the back of the stage. Make sure that
the slide doesn’t go under the clips
that holds it in place.
- Use the knobs on the lower side of
the stage to center the specimen over
the condenser lens.
- Start with the low power objective
lens (4X) and the stage in its highest
position.
PART 3.TROUBLESHOOTING
- If your slide doesn’t move when you
turn the knobs to adjust the slide
holder, make sure you are using the
right knobs and the slides are clipped
properly.
- If you’re having trouble in focusing
the specimen, make sure that the slide
is centered.
- Start with LPO and stage at the
highest position.
- If you are observing unstained
specimens, adjust the stage diaphragm
to reduce the amount of light passing
through.
PART 4. CLEAN UP
- When you’re finished using the can be achieved and this allows
microscope, remove the slide and resolution of structures as small al 1
rotate the lowest power lens in place. nm., thus permitting the study of
- Move the stage to a centered subcellular morphology.
position and the slide holder to the
left. * There are two types of Electron
- Check if the stage is clean and dry. Microscope: Transmission Electron
- Turn of the light, power and unplug Microscope and the Scanning Electron
the cord. Microscope.
- Carry the microscope with both
hands back to the cabinet. One holding SCANNING TRANSMISSION
the arm, and the other the microscope ELECTRON ELECTRON
base. MICROSCOPE MICROSCOPE
- Allows - Allows
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSCOPE resolution of resolution of
three- subcellular
MICROSCOPE - Derived from 2 Greek dimensional structures on
words, mikrós that means “small” and views of the very thin tissue
skopeîn is “to look” or “see”. surface of cells, sections.
-An instrument that can be used to tissues and
observe small objects, even cells. The subcellular
image of an object is magnified structures.
through at least one lens in the - Allows you to - Allows you to
microscope. This lens bends light look at a look at internal
toward the eye and makes an object relatively large details of small
appear larger than it actually is. area and only samples at near-
needs surface atomic
MICROSCOPY details. resolution.
-refers to the proper use and care of
the microscope. PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE
-The magnifying power of a
microscope is an expression of the
number of times the object being
examined appears to be enlarged and
is a

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
- Microscope that is preferred to use in
research laboratories.
In this, parallel beams of electrons
instead of light waves are employed MICROSCOPE - MIKROS =SMALL
so that much greater magnification SCOPEOS= TO SEE
 Stage - Fixed horizontal platform that
Eyepiece - Also known as ocular lens. holds the specimen.
Could be found on top of the body
tube. Magnified the specimen image. Stage clips - Holds specimen in place.

Diopter adjustment - Customizes the Stage control - Moves the stage in

eyepiece without using eyeglasses to
correct your vision.
Body tube - Supports the eyepiece.
Maintains the distance between the
eyepiece and the objective lenses.
Arm - Holds the upper part and lower
part of the microscope.
Head - Holds the eyepiece and the
body tube.
Objectives - Used to magnify the
images of the specimen to form an
enlarged image.
There are 4 types of objectives:
* SCANNER - 4x (Red)
* LOW POWER OBJECTIVE - 10 x
(Yellow)
left and right. Forward and backward.
Coarse adjustment knobs - Used to
make relatively wide focusing
adjustments.
Fine adjustment knobs - Used to make
relatively small adjustments.
Light source - Illuminator. Emits light
to the specimen.
Condenser - Collects and focus light
from the illuminator on the specimen.
Diaphragm - Controls the amount of
light reaching the specimen.
Condenser focus knob - Moves the
condenser up or down to control the
lighting focus on the specimen.
VARIABLES IN MICROSCOPY

* HIGH POWER OBJECTIVE - 40-45x MAGNIFICATION

(Blue) - the ratio size of an object seen under
the microscope to the actual; size
* OIL IMMERSION OBJECTIVE - 90- observed with the unaided eye.
100x (White) Total Magnification = Objectives
Magnification x Eye Piece
- Oil used is cedarwood oil Magnification (10x)

Nosepiece - Holds the objective lenses Type Objective Eyepiece Total

and can be turned to increase the Of Mag. Mag.
Objective
magnification.
SCANNE 4X 10X 40X
R
 LPO 10X 10X 100X
HPO 40-45X 10X 400- * In order to examine specimens,
450X tissues retrieved are sectioned in
OIO 90- 10X 900- three ways:
100X 1000X

RESOLVING POWER
- Ablity to reveal closely adjacent
structural details as separate and
distinct.
HUMAN EYE: 0.25mm (distance
between two objects is 0.25mm, it is
seen by the eye as separate)
LIGHT MICROSCOPE: 0.25um (distance
between two objects is 0.25um, it is
seen by the eye as combined)

LIMIT OF RESOLUTION (LR)

- Minimum distance between two
points to identify them separately.

WORKING DISTANCE
- Distance between the front surface
of lens and surface of cover glass or
specimen.

NUMERICAL APERTURE
- Ratio of diameter of the lens to its
focal length.
- Index of the resolving power. INSTRUMENTS USED TO
NA = (n)(Sin Θ/2) OBTAIN BODY SPECIMENS
n- refractive index
Θ - angle of aperture SCALPEL - A knife with a small, sharp,
sometimes detachable blade as used
MODULE 1 - THE MICROSCOPE by a surgeon.
& TISSUE SECTION (B) -  used for directly accessible tissues
such as the skin, mouth, nose, etc.
NEEDLES - Utilized in cases of solid
organs while endoscopic tubes are
used for samples from the alimentary
tract or body cavities.
SPECIAL FLEXIBLE CANNULAE- Used to
extract specimens from blood vessels.
HISTOLOGICAL SECTIONS
- Extremely thin, transparent shavings
cut from a little piece of body tissue.
- This is laid flat on a glass slide after
running through the different stages of
tissue preparation, stained, covered
first with a small amount of mounting
fluid and finally with cover slip.
- These sections are sliced from
various levels which reveal diverse
impressions of pictures of the
structures of the tissue organ.
THINGS TO REMEMBER:
* Each feature of the animal’s
anatomy exists in three space
dimensions. Tissues are subject to the
variations which occur in all living
things in the course of time
* However, in a histological section, it
is only a two-dimension slice of an
original three-dimension object.
Two Major Important Considerations
with Regard to Histological
Methodology:
* Kind of microscope used
* Preparation of the tissue/organ in a
manner suitable for viewing with the
microscope.
MODULE 2
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1. CELL
- Most basic and functional unit of life.
2. TISSUE
- Group of cells that formed to
perform a specific function.
3. ORGAN
- Group of tissues with similar
structure and composition that formed
to constitute an organ with a specific
function.
4. ORGAN SYSTEM
- Group of organs that perform a
specific and common function. There
are 10 organ body systems namely the
skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive.
5. ORGANISM
- A living thing made up of cells.
THE CELL THEORY
(1) All living things are made up of
cells,
(2) Cells are the smallest units (or most
basic building blocks) of life and;
(3) All cells come from preexisting cells
through the process of cell division.
THE CELL
*There are basic types of cells:
 bacterial cell
 animal cell
 plant cell
NUMBER OF CELLS:
PROKARYOTES
- Unicellular. Known as the first cells.
- lacks nucleus and other membrane
bound organelles.
EUKARYOTES
- Multicellular. Has the basic
membrane bound organelles namely
the Nucleus, Cell membrane, and
cytoplasm with organelles.
- There are two main types of
eukaryotic cells: Plant and Animal
Cells.
Organelles - Very small microscopic
functional units of the cell. They
perform various functions.
ORGANELLES AND ITS
FUNCTIONS:
CELL MEMBRANE - Regulates entrance
and exit of nutritive and excretory
substances. Semi-permeable/Selective
membrane. Only present in bacteria
and animal cells.
- Proteins in the membrane help move
large molecules and aid in cell
recognition.
- Peripheral Proteins are attached on
the surface (inner or outer)
- Integral Proteins are embedded
completely through the membrane.
The Phospholipid layer is constituted
by two layers:
Hydrophobic (Tail) - repels water
Hydrophilic (Head) - attracts water
CELL WALL - Non-living layer. Supports
and protect the cell. Found in plants
(cellulose), fungi (chitin), bacteria
(peptidoglycan). Absent in animal
cells.
CYTOPLASM - Jelly-like substance
where organelles are found. This is
enclosed by the cell membrane.
Present in all cells where it provides as
a medium for chemical reactions to
take place.
GLYCOPROTEINS - Have carbohydrates
tails that act as markers for cell
recognition. Essential in blood group
antigen because it represents your
blood type.
NUCLEUS - Unifies, controls, and
integrates cell function. Control
organelle.
- usually, the largest organelle where
DNA can be found.
NUCLEAR MEMEBRANE - Facilitates
exchange of materials between
cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. Attached
to the rough ER, it is a double
membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
NUCLEOLUS - Ribosome synthesis.
NUCLEOPORE - It is where the
substances enter and exit the cell.
NUCLEAR CHROMATIN - Carries the
genes or hereditary materials.
NUCLEOPLASM - Base material of the
nucleus where nuclear chromatin and
nucleolus are suspended.
- Acts as a selective barrier.
PROTOPLASM - All that are inside the
cell membrane.
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS:
CHROMOSOME - Condensed form.
Each cell contains 23 pairs of
chromosome. Total is 46.
CHROMATIN - Less condensed form.
Composes the chromosome. It made
up of protein, RNA and DNA
HISTONES - Protein that provides
structural support and wraps the DNA.
DNA - Hereditary material.
CYTOSKELETON - Helps to maintain
the shape of the cells. Helps organelles
to move around the cell. It is made of
proteins. Cytoskeleton is constituted
of two key components:
* Microfilaments - threadlike. Made of
ACTIN.
* Microtubules - tubelike. Made of
TUBULIN.
CENTRIOLES - Paired structures near
the nucleus. Plays an important role in
cell cycle. Only found on animal cells
MITOCHONDRIA - Powerhouse of the
cell. This is where ATP is generated
(Cellular respiration). Inherited from
our Mothers. Present in both plants
and animals.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM -
Synthesizes and transports different
cell products and substances.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Has ribosomes.
- Makes membrane proteins and
proteins for EXPORT out of the cell.
- lipid synthesis, steroid formation,
detoxification of some drugs.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Lacks ribosomes.
- Makes membrane lipids. Makes cell
products that are used INSIDE the cell.
Attached to the ends of rough ER.
- Regulates calcium for the muscle and
can destroy toxic substances.
RIBOSOMES - Makes proteins and
Ribosomal RNA. Known as the protein
factory of the cell.
- Can be attached to the rough ER at
be unattached which means that it can
be found anywhere in the cytoplasm,
- protein synthesis occurs. This joins
amino acids (monomers of proteins) to
make proteins.
GOLGI APPARATUS/DICTYOSOME - water and enzymes. It is present in
Modifies, sorts and packages plants and it stores the CELL SAP.
molecules from the ER for storage or - Fluid filled sacs for storage. This is
transport out of the cell. Has two not always present in animal cells.
faces:
CILIA - Shorter and more on cells.
CIS FACE - Receives substances FLAGELLA - Longer and fewer on cells.
produced from the ER.
TRANS FACE - Exports the substances
received by the CIS face going outside
Vacuoles NA Present Present
of the cell.
, small , big
Lysosomes NA Present Present
LYSOSOME - Considered as the suicide
Centrioles Present Present NA
bag of the cell. Programmed for cell
death (AUTOLYSIS). Chloroplasts NA NA Present
- This is where broken down food, Cytoplasm Present Present Present
bacteria, and worn out cell parts are Mitochondri Present Present Present
stored to be excreted out of the cell. a
Golgi NA Present Present
VACUOLES - Storage for sugar, Apparatus
proteins, minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, Endoplasmic NA Present Present
Reticulum
Charact BACTERI ANIMA PLAN
(SER & RER)
eristics A L T
Size Smalles Smaller Small
# of Prokary Eukary Eukar t
cells ote ote yote
Nucleus NA Present Prese
nt
Cell Present Present Prese
Membr nt
ane
Cell Present NA Prese
Wall (Peptido nt
glycan) (Cellu
lose)
Nuclear NA Present Prese
Membr nt
ane
Riboso Present Present Prese
mes nt
DNA Present, Present Prese
but only , nt,
one Multipl Multi
e ple
Cytoske Present Present Prese
leton nt

CELL CYCLE: MITOSIS
CELL DIVISION (somatic cells)
- Cells have limited life cycle. The
division occurs in all adult except the
cells of Central nervous system.
- Keeps cells living and growing.
- End product 2 identical daughter
cells.
INTERPHASE (longest cycle)
- Prepares the cell for cell division.
-Replicates DNA, subcellular
structures.
- Composed of G1, S and G2 phases.
- Cells may exit the cell cycle at G1 or
enter G0, a quit phase.
G1: INITIAL GAP (10 hours)
- Growth of new daughter cells Active
synthesis of RNA, protein but not DNA.
S STAGE: SYNTHETIC STAGE (9 hours)
- Active DNA and histone synthesis.
- Probable replication of 2 centrioles.
G2: SECOND GAP (4 hours)
- Time between DNA synthesis and
resumption of mitosis.
MITOSIS (active cell division)
-Involves cytoplasm (division of
cytoplasm) & Karyokinesis (division of
nucleus).
CELL DIVISION
PROPHASE
- Chromosome becomes shorter.
- Chromosome separates in half and in
each half attaches in a centromere.
-Pair of centrioles duplicates and
begins to go towards opposite poles.
- Spindle fibers form. Nuclear envelope
and nucleolus start to disappear.
METAPHASE
- Chromosomes aligned along
equatorial plate. Moreover, it starts to
pass between the spindle fibers.
ANAPHASE
- Chromosome splits in half.
Cell elongation occurs wherein the
spindle fibers pulls chromatics to
opposite poles.
Late Anaphase: Constriction starts to
form (Cleavage furrow)
TELOPHASE
-Chromoses detach from choromoso
mal microtubules at each pole of cells.
- Microtubules disintegrate.
- Chromosomes start to elongate or
disperse. Nucleoli reappears and
nuclear envelopes re-form.
- Cleavage furrow starts to form
which indicates that cell is ready for
cytokinesis.
CYTOKINESIS
- Final stage of mitosis. Cytoplasm
divides and two new daughter cells are
formed.