HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
MODULE 1: THE MICROSCOPE
Microscopes are instruments that are used
in science laboratories, to visualize very minute
objects such as cells, tissues, microorganisms,
giving a contrasting image, that is magnified.
Microscopes are made up of lenses of
magnification, each with their own magnification
powers. Depending on the type of lens, it will
magnify the specimen according to its focal
health.
Their ability to function is because they
have been constructed with special components
that enable them to achieve high magnification
levels. They can view very small specimens and
distinguish their structural differences.
A. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
1. Mechanical Parts
 For adjustments and support
2. Optical Parts
 Enlarge the specimen; These are the set
of lenses or lens system
3. Illuminating Parts
 Provide the light
OPTICAL PARTS
MECHANICAL PARTS
 BASE- It is the basal, horse shoe-
shaped structure. It provides support to
all the remaining parts of the
microscope.
 PILLAR- A small, strong vertical
projection developing from the foot or
base is called pillar.
OCULAR/EYEPIECE It is a small tube
 ARM- It is curved, and strong
structure used for handling the entire
instrument.
 STAGE- It is a flat rectangular plate
attached to the lower end of the arm.
 STAGE CLIP- Two clips are attached
on the upper part of the stage. These
are used for holding the slide in
position.
 BODY TUBE- It is the tubular, hollow
part attached to the upper part of the
arm of microscope. It can be moved up
and down with the help of adjustment
knobs.
 DRAW TUBE- It is the cylindrical
structure on top of the body tube that
hold the ocular lens.
 REVOLVING NOSEPIECE- It is a
circular and revolving metallic part
attached to the lower end of the body
tube.
 DUST SHIELD- It lies atop the
revolving nosepiece and keeps dusts
from settling in the objectives.
 COARSE FOCUS KNOB- It is a
larged-sized knob used to move the
body tube up and down for bringing
the object into focus.
 FINE FOCUS KNOB- It is a small-
sized knob. It is used for fine and sharp
focusing of the object. Exact focusing
is done by this knob.
consisting of lenses,
that indicate the
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relative power of SUB-STAGE

magnification
OBJECTIVES: a. IRIS DIAPHRAGM- This part can be
a. Scanning It is used for initial adjusted to vary the intensity that is
Objective location of the projected through the slide. As there is
specimen. It has 4X no set rule on which setting depends on
magnification the transparency of the specimen and
b. Low Power It may also be used the degree of contrast you desire in
Objective for initial location of your image.
the specimen. It b. CONDENSER- This is a lens that
magnifies the concentrates light to the specimen.
specimens 10X. it
views the specimen
in a larger field. B. MAGNIFICATION
c. High Power It obtains greater
Objective magnification and Total magnification is determined by multiplying
views detailed the power of the ocular by the power of the
structure of the objective in use.
specimen.
d. Oil Immersion It is used for Objective Used Magnification
Objective magnification of Scanning 4x
extremely small Low Power 10x
specimens, such as High Power 40x
bacterial cells. In Oil Immersion 100x
using this, a drop of
oil is placed on the Ocular Lens Total Magnification
slide for better 10x 40x
refraction. 10x 100x
10x 400x
ILLUMINATING PARTS 10x 1000x

C. USING THE MICROSCOPE

Skill in using the microscope is necessary
for many of the exercises in the lab manual.

Fortunately, learning to use the microscope

is both easy and fun.

Here are the basic rules when using the

microscope in a real laboratory setting:

 Always carry with 2 hands

 ILLUMINATOR/LAMP- A steady light
source (110 volts in the US) that shines up
through the slide.
 MIRROR- reflects light rays through the
object. One side of the mirror is plain
(used with natural light);the other is
concave (used with artificial light).
 Never touch the lenses with your fingers
 Only use lens paper for cleaning
 Do not force knobs
 Keep objects clear of desk and cords
 When you are finished with your “scope”,
rotate the nosepiece so that it’s on the low
power objective, roll the stage down to
lowest level, rubber band the cord, then
replace the dust cover.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE
MICROSCOPE
 Good preventive maintenance and care
includes:
 Regular cleaning of oculars and objectives
 Avoid damaging oculars and other optics
with eye make-up or other debris
 Careful handling to avoid abrupt motions
 Protect from direct sunlight, high
temperature, humidity, dust, and vibration
 Use appropriate materials to clean the
lenses
 Cover when not in use with vinyl or plastic
dust cover.
FOCUSING SPECIMENS
1. Always start with the scanning objective.
Odds are, you will be able to see something on
this setting. Use the Coarse Knob to focus, image
may be small at this magnification, but you won’t
be able to find it on the higher powers without this
first step.
Do not use stage clips, try moving the slide
around until you find something
2. Once you’ve focused on Scanning, switch to
Low Power. Use the Coarse Knob to refocus.
Again, if you haven’t focused on this level,
you will not be able to move to the next level.
All living organisms on Earth are divided
into cells. The main concept of cell theory is that
cells are the basic structural unit for all organisms.
Cells are small compartments that hold the
biological equipment necessary to keep an
organism alive and successful. Living things may
be single-celled or they may be very complex such
as a human being.
          There are smaller pieces that make up cells
such as macromolecules and organelles. Cells can
also connect to form larger structures. They might
group together to form the tissues of the stomach
and eventually the entire digestive system.
          In larger organisms, the main purpose of a
cell is to organize. Cells hold a variety of pieces
and each cell type has a different purpose. By
dividing responsibilities among different groups
of cells, it is easier for an organism to survive and
grow.
          If you were only made of one cell, you
would be very limited. You don't find single cells
that are as large as a cow. Cells have problems
functioning when they get too big. Also, if you
were only one cell you couldn't have a nervous
system, no muscles for movement, and using the
internet would be out of the question. The trillions
of cells in your body make your way of life
possible.

3. Now switch to High Power. At this point,

ONLY use the Fine Adjustment Knob to focus
specimens.

Using High Power

 Your slide MUST be focused on low

power before attempting this step
 Click the nosepiece to the longest
objective
 Do NOT use the Coarse Focusing Knob,
this could crack the slide or the lens
 Use the Fine Focus Knob to bring the slide
into focus

1. Scanning-----use coarse knob

2. Low power---- use coarse knob CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
3. High power----- use fine knob
1. Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane
Selectively permeable membrane.
MODULE 2: CELL ANATOMY Composed of double layer of phospholipid
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

molecules embedded with other molecules. Cells in many parts of the human body
Involved in transport and communication divide to produce more cells of the same type. The
between the inside and outside of the cell. hereditary information contained within the
2. Nucleus ( control center of the cell) nucleus of a resting parent cell must first be
replicated (copied), then evenly distributed
 Nuclear envelope- Surrounds the nucleus between the two cells that result from division.
and separates the contents of the nucleus
from the contents of the cytoplasm          The cell cycle is the sequence of events in
the life of the cell from the moment it is created at
 Nuclear Pores- Small holes in the
the end of a previous cycle of cell division until it
nucleus that control which ions and
then divides itself, generating two new cells and
molecules (for example, proteins and
distributing the genetic material to the daughter
RNA) can move in and out the nucleus.
cells.
 Chromatin- Complex of DNA and
proteins that forms chromosomes within          While there are a few cells in the body that
the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. do not undergo cell division (such as red blood
 Nucleolus- Site of ribosome synthesis and cells, most neurons, and some muscle cells), most
assembly. somatic cells divide regularly. A somatic cell is a
3. Mitochondria- Important in ATP (cellular general term for a body cell, and all human cells,
energy) production. except for the cells that produce eggs and sperm
4. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)- (which are referred to as germ cells), are somatic
Participates in protein synthesis cells. Somatic cells contain two copies of each of
(ribosomes in its membrane synthesize their chromosomes (one copy received from each
proteins) parent) for a total of 46 (23 pairs).
5. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)-
Synthesizes lipids, and stores calcium in
muscle cells.
6. Ribosomes- Synthesize proteins
7. Golgi apparatus- Participates in protein
modification and packaging into small
membrane- bound vesicles
8. Vesicles- are small round membrane
enclosed structures
 Transport Vesicles- Move substances
between compartments inside cells
 Secretory Vesicles- Join with cell
membrane to release contents, such as
mucus to ECF
 Peroxisomes- Contain enzymes that
catabolize (break down) fatty acids and
some chemical toxins.
 Lysosomes- Contain digestive enzymes. Note:  Most of the replications of cellular contents
9. Fibers of the Cytoskeleton- Provide and took place during G1 phase. Although there are
internal cellular scaffolding still some organelle replications that took place
a. Microtubule made of tubulin, during G2 phase.
b. Microfilament made of actin, and
c. Intermediate fibers made of keratins THE CELL CYCLE
10. Centrioles (found in an area in the cell
called centrosome)- Organize DNA The cell cycle is the process a cell undertakes to
movement during cell division. replicate all of its material and divide into two
identical cells.
MODULE 3: CELL CYCLE
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

One “turn” or cycle of the cell cycle consists of MITOTIC PHASE (M-PHASE)
three general phases: interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis.    The mitotic phase (M phase) is composed of two
Interphase is the period of the cell cycle tightly coupled processes: mitosis and cytokinesis
during which the cell is not dividing. The majority
of cells are in interphase most of the time.  During mitosis the chromosomes in the
Mitosis is the division of genetic material, cell nucleus separate into two identical sets in two
during which the cell nucleus breaks down and nuclei. This is followed by cytokinesis in which
two new, fully functional, nuclei are formed.  the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane split
Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm into into two cells containing roughly equal shares of
two distinctive cells. these cellular components. 

INTERPHASE
THE IMPORTANCE OF CELL DIVISION
Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle. 
The process of mitosis is essential for
• G1 phase: Cells in this stage synthesis growth and repair processes of eukaryotic
proteins and increase in size. Cells can organisms: mitosis is how we are able to replace
remain in this stage for a long time. our fingernails and hair as well as how our skin is
• S phase: Is the stage during which DNA replaced. The table below summarizes the role of
replication occurs. The cell makes an mitosis in various processes in eukaryotic
identical copy of each of organisms.
its chromosomes. Chromosomes are
found inside the nucleus of the cell and
consist of long strands of DNA that Living Process Role of Mitosis
contain the genetic information of the cell.
• G2 phase: During this phase the cell may
continue to grow and undergo normal The number of cells
cellular functions. Towards the end of this increases by mitosis
phase the cell will start to replicate its enabling organisms to
Development and
organelles in preparation for mitosis. grow from a single cell
growth
to a complex
multicellular
organism.
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Cells are constantly

lost and replaced by
new ones in the body,
for example in the skin
Cell replacement and in the gut. In
addition, red blood
cells live for only four
months, and are
replaced by mitosis.

Some organisms use

Replacement of mitosis to replace
damaged plant or body parts. For
animal tissue example starfish
(regeneration) replace lost arms by
mitosis.

Some organisms such

as the hydra use
mitosis to produce ANIMAL TISSUES
genetically identical
Asexual reproduction offspring. The process The body contains at least 200 distinct cell
is known as budding. types. These cells contain essentially the same
Mitosis is also the internal structures yet they vary enormously in
method by which yeast shape and function. The different types of cells are
cells multiply. not randomly distributed throughout the body;
rather they occur in organized layers, a level of
organization referred to as tissue.

The variety in shape reflects the many different

roles that cells fulfill in your body. The human
body starts as a single cell at fertilization. As this
fertilized egg divides, it gives rise to trillions of
cells, each built from the same blueprint, but
organizing into tissues and becoming irreversibly
committed to a developmental pathway.

Although there are many types of cells in the

human body, they are organized into four broad
categories of tissues: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous. Each of these categories is
characterized by specific functions that contribute
to the overall health and maintenance of the body.
A disruption of the structure is a sign of injury or
disease. 

MODULE 4: TYPES OF TISSUES

 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

c. Pseudostratified (pseudo- = “false”)

describes tissue with a single layer of
irregularly shaped cells that give the
appearance of more than one layer.
d. Transitional describes a form of
specialized stratified epithelium in which
the shape of the cells can vary.

FOUR TYPES OF TISSUES

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- also referred to as epithelium
- refers to the sheets of cells that cover
exterior surfaces of the body, lines
internal cavities and passageways, and
forms certain glands.

2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE 5.2. Classification of Connective Tissue

- binds the cells and organs of the body
together and functions in the
Dense Cells: fibroblasts
protection, support, and integration of
connective Fibers: collagen fibers heavily packed in the
all parts of the body.
tissue ECM either in parallel order
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
(dense regular), or randomly interlaced
- responds to stimulation and contracting
(dense irregular)
to provide movement.
4. NERVOUS TISSUE Loose Cells: fibroblasts
- allows the propagation of connective Fibers: collagen fibers
electrochemical signals in the form of tissue loosely scattered in the ECM
nerve impulses that communicate
between different regions of the body . Reticular Cells: reticular
connective Fibers: reticular fibers organized in
5.1. Classification of Epithelial Tissue tissue delicate networks
Epithelial tissues are classified according to: Cartilage Cells: chondrocytes
1. the shape of the cells ECM: collagen II (hyaline cartilage),
2. number of the cell layers formed elastic fibers (elastic cartilage),
1. Cell shapes can be: collagen I (fibrocartilage)
a. squamous (flattened and thin)
b. cuboidal (boxy, as wide as it is tall) Bone Cells: osteoblasts,
c. columnar (rectangular, taller than it is ECM: calcified lamellae
wide).
2. Number of cell layers in the tissue can be: Blood Cells: erythrocytes,
a. One (simple epithelium) – where every cell ECM: blood plasma
rests on the basal lamina
b. more than one (stratified epithelium) – and Adipose Cells: white
only the basal layer of cells rests on the tissue ECM: no ECM
basal lamina.
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Embryonic Mesenchyme: mesenchymal cells in

connective Mucoid tissue: mesenchymal cells in
tissue collagen rich ECM

5.3. Classification of Connective Tissue

1. Dense Connective Tissue

(a) Dense regular connective tissue consists of
collagenous fibers packed into parallel
bundles.
(b) Dense irregular connective tissue consists
of collagenous fibers interwoven into a
mesh-like network.
4. Adipose.
This is a loose connective tissue that consists of
fat cells with little extracellular matrix. It stores
fat for energy and provides insulation.

2. Reticular Tissue
This is a loose connective tissue made up of a
network of reticular fibers that provides a
supportive framework for soft organs. LM × 1600.
5. Bone Connective Tissue
There are two types of bone tissue:  compact and
spongy.  Picture shown is of compact bone tissue. 
This is most common and has the appearance of 
the matrix forming concentric rings around
cavities for blood vessels.  The osteocytes (bone
cells) position themselves within the concentric
rings.

3. Areolar Tissue.   
This is a loose connective tissue widely spread
throughout the body.  It contains all three types of
fibers (collagen, elastin, and reticular) with much
ground substance and fibroblasts.
Micrographs provided by the Regents of
University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
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Types of Cartilage
Cartilage is a connective tissue consisting
of collagenous fibers embedded in a firm matrix
of chondroitin sulfates. (a) Hyaline cartilage
provides support with some flexibility. The
example is from dog tissue. (b) Fibrocartilage
provides some compressibility and can absorb
pressure. (c) Elastic cartilage provides firm but
elastic support. From top, LM × 300, LM × 1200,
LM × 1016.  contains the nucleus and mitochondria. The
Micrographs provided by the Regents of
University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing
erythrocytes and various types of leukocytes that
circulate in a liquid extracellular matrix. LM ×
1600. 
Micrographs provided by the Regents of
University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
5.5. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is characterized as being
excitable and capable of sending and receiving
electrochemical signals that provide the body with
information. Two main classes of cells make up
nervous tissue: the neuron and neuroglia
The Neuron
The cell body of a neuron, also called the soma,
dendrites transfer the nerve impulse to the soma.
The axon carries the action potential away to
another excitable cell. LM × 1600.
Neuroglia play an essential role in supporting
neurons and modulating their information
propagation.
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MODULE 5: ORGANIZATION OF THE
BODY
OVERVIEW: A solid foundation is essential
when learning any new skill. Understanding
anatomical directions, articulations, planes, and
regions are the foundation for learning anatomy.
The standard anatomical position of the human
body is facing towards the observer, legs hip-
width apart, feet facing forward, arms out slightly
at either side with palms facing forward. When
determining a structure’s relative position, be sure
to use this frame of reference. For example, it can
be easy to confuse which side is the anterior
aspect of the hands, therefore, one might
incorrectly assume that the thumb is medial to the
little finger. Remember, the anterior aspect of the
hand is the palm, therefore the thumb is furthest
from the center of the body and is lateral.
The archetypal body planes are frontal, sagittal
and transverse planes. The frontal plane splits the
body into anterior and posterior halves. The
sagittal plane splits the body into left and right
halves. The transverse plane splits the body into
superior and inferior (top and bottom) halves. It is
important to be able to identify a given plane so
that you can orient yourself when a specimen,
model or diagram is depicted a certain way. This
same reasoning applies to the necessity of
understanding directional terms such as anterior,
inferior, distal and medial. It is recommended that
you read the content prior to attending lab to make
the most of your time.
LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomists and health care providers use
terminology that can be bewildering to the
uninitiated. However, the purpose of this language
is not to confuse, but rather to increase precision
and reduce medical errors. For example, is a scar
“above the wrist” located on the forearm two or
three inches away from the hand? Or is it at the
base of the hand? Is it on the palm-side or back-
side? By using precise anatomical terminology,
we eliminate ambiguity. Anatomical terms derive
from ancient Greek and Latin words. Because
these languages are no longer used in everyday
conversation, the meaning of their words does not
change.
Anatomical terms are made up of roots, prefixes,
and suffixes. The root of a term often refers to an
organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or
suffix often describes the root. For example, in the
disorder hypertension, the prefix “hyper-” means
“high” or “over,” and the root word “tension”
refers to pressure, so the word “hypertension”
refers to abnormally high blood pressure.
Anatomical Position
To further increase precision, anatomists
standardize the way in which they view the body.
Just as maps are normally oriented with north at
the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical
position, is that of the body standing upright, with
the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes
forward. The upper limbs are held out to each
side, and the palms of the hands face forward as
illustrated in Figure 1.12. Using this standard
position reduces confusion. It does not matter how
the body being described is oriented, the terms are
used as if it is in anatomical position. For
example, a scar in the “anterior (front) carpal
(wrist) region” would be present on the palm side
of the wrist. The term “anterior” would be used
even if the hand were palm down on a table.
Regions of the Human Body
The human body is shown in anatomical position
in an (a) anterior view and a (b) posterior view.
The regions of the body are labeled in boldface.
A body that is lying down is described as either
prone or supine. Prone describes a face-down
orientation, and supine describes a face up
orientation. These terms are sometimes used in
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describing the position of the body during specific   Lateral describes the side or
physical examinations or surgical procedures. direction toward the side of the
body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral
to the digits.
Regional Terms
  Medial describes the middle or
The human body’s numerous regions have direction toward the middle of the
specific terms to help increase precision body. The hallux is the medial toe.
(see Figure 1.12). Notice that the term “brachium”
  Proximal describes a position in a
or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and
limb that is nearer to the point of
“antebrachium” or “forearm” is used rather than
attachment or the trunk of the
“lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is
body. The brachium is proximal to
correct, and “leg” or “crus” is reserved for the
the antebrachium.
portion of the lower limb between the knee and
the ankle. You will be able to describe the body’s   Distal describes a position in a
regions using the terms from the figure. limb that is farther from the point
of attachment or the trunk of the
body. The crus is distal to the
Directional Terms
femur.
Certain directional anatomical terms appear   Superficial describes a position
throughout this and any other anatomy textbook closer to the surface of the body.
(Figure 1.13). These terms are essential for The skin is superficial to the bones.
describing the relative locations of different body
  Deep describes a position farther
structures. For instance, an anatomist might
from the surface of the body. The
describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another
brain is deep to the skull.
or a physician might describe a tumor as
“superficial to” a deeper body structure. Commit
these terms to memory to avoid confusion when
you are studying or describing the locations of
particular body parts.

   Anterior (or ventral) Describes
the front or direction toward the
front of the body. The toes are
anterior to the foot.
   Posterior (or dorsal) Describes
the back or direction toward the
back of the body. The popliteus is
posterior to the patella.
   Superior (or cranial) describes a
position above or higher than
another part of the body proper. Directional Terms Applied to the Human Body
The orbits are superior to the oris. Paired directional terms are shown as applied to
   Inferior (or caudal) describes a the human body.
position below or lower than Body Planes
another part of the body proper;
near or toward the tail (in humans, A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-
the coccyx, or lowest part of the dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern
spinal column). The pelvis is medical imaging devices enable clinicians to
inferior to the abdomen. obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies. We call
these scans. Body sections and scans can be
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correctly interpreted, however, only if the viewer
understands the plane along which the section was
made. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional
surface that passes through the body. There are
three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and
medicine, as illustrated in Figure 1.14.
 The sagittal plane is the plane that
divides the body or an organ
vertically into right and left sides.
If this vertical plane runs directly
down the middle of the body, it is
called the midsagittal or median
plane. If it divides the body into
unequal right and left sides, it is
called a parasagittal plane or less
commonly a longitudinal section.
 The frontal plane is the plane that
divides the body or an organ into
an anterior (front) portion and a
posterior (rear) portion. The frontal
plane is often referred to as a
coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin
for “crown.”)
 The transverse plane is the plane
that divides the body or organ
horizontally into upper and lower
portions. Transverse planes
produce images referred to as cross
sections.
Figure 1.14. Planes of the Body
The three planes most commonly used in
anatomical and medical imaging are the sagittal,
frontal (or coronal), and transverse plane.
Body Cavities and Serous Membranes
The body maintains its internal organization by
means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures
that separate compartments. The dorsal
(posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior)
cavity are the largest body compartments
(Figure 1.15). These cavities contain and protect
delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity
allows for significant changes in the size and
shape of the organs as they perform their
functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and
intestines, for example, can expand and contract
without distorting other tissues or disrupting the
activity of nearby organs.
Figure 1.15. Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities
The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions.
The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal
cavities.
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and
Anterior (Ventral) Cavities
The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral)
cavities are each subdivided into smaller cavities.
In the posterior (dorsal) cavity,
the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal
cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal
cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a
continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial
and spinal cavities that house them are also
continuous. The brain and spinal cord are
protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral
column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless
fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the
brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal)
cavity.
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The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main
subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity (see Figure 1.15).
The thoracic cavity is the more superior
subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is
enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity
contains the lungs and the heart, which is located
in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the
floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from
the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity.
The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in
the body. Although no membrane physically
divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful
to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the
division that houses the digestive organs, and the
pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs
of reproduction.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
To promote clear communication, for
instance about the location of a patient’s
abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care
providers typically divide up the cavity into either
nine regions or four quadrants (Figure 1.16).
Figure 1.16. Regions and Quadrants of the
Peritoneal Cavity
There are (a) nine abdominal regions and
(b) four abdominal quadrants in the peritoneal
cavity.
The more detailed regional approach subdivides
the cavity with one horizontal line immediately
inferior to the ribs and one immediately superior
to the pelvis, and two vertical lines drawn as if
dropped from the midpoint of each clavicle
(collarbone). There are nine resulting regions. The
simpler quadrants approach, which is more
commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity
with one horizontal and one vertical line that
intersect at the patient’s umbilicus (navel).
MODULE 6: THE INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
OVERVIEW: The body’s first line of defense
against pathogens and other microbes is the skin.
The skin is multi-layered and it functions to
maintain homeostasis, retain water,
synthesize vitamin D and regulate body
temperature (thermoregulation). It is made of two
chief layers: the epidermis, made of closely
packed epithelial cells, and the dermis, made of
dense, irregular connective tissue which houses
blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and
other structures. Beneath the dermis lies
the hypodermis, which is composed mainly of
loose connective and fatty tissues. One of skin’s
accessory structures, nails, are considered to be
specialized structures of the epidermis found at
the tips of fingers and toes. Other accessory
structures, sudoriferous glands, produce sweat
which cools the body by evaporation. Skin is the
largest continuous organ of the body,
encompassing approximately 16 percent of our
body weight.
• Integumentary system
– Consists of the skin and accessory organs; hair,
nails, and cutaneous glands.
• Inspection of the skin, hair, and nails is
significant part of a physical exam
• Skin is the most vulnerable organ
– Exposed to radiation, trauma, infection, and
injurious chemicals
• Receives more medical treatment than any other
organ system
• Dermatology— scientific study and medical
treatment of the integumentary system.
THE SKIN AND SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
 Expected Learning Outcomes
- List of functions of the skin and relate
them to its structure.
- Describe the histological structure of
the epidermis, dermis, and
subcutaneous tissue.
- Describe the normal and pathological
colors that the skin can have, and
explain their causes.
- Describe the common markings of the
skin.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

- Perspiration
 Nonverbal communication
- Facial expression
- Importance in social acceptance and self-
image

THE EPIDERMIS

 Epidermis- keratinized stratified squamous

epithelium
- Includes dead cells at skin surface packed
 Skin is body’s largest and heaviest organ with tough keratin protein
- Lacks blood vessels
- Covers 1.5 to 2.0 m squared; composes
 Depends on the diffusion of
15% of body weight.
nutrients from underlying
 Layers
connective tissue
- Epidermis: stratified squamous
- Contains sparse nerve endings for touch
epithelium
and pain
- Dermis: deeper connective tissue layer
- Hypodermis: connective tissue layer
below dermis (not part of skin but
CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS
associated with it).
 Five epidermal cell types
 Skin thickness ranges from 0.5 to 6mm
- Thick skin covers front of hands, bottoms  Stem cells
of feet - Undifferentiated cells that give rise to
 Has sweat glands, but no hair follicles keratinocytes
or sebaceous (oil) glands. - In deepest layer of epidermis (stratum
 Epidermis 0.5 mm thick basale)
- Thin skin  Keratinocytes
 Possesses hair follicles, sebaceous - Great majority of epidermal cells
glands, and sweat glands - Synthesize keratin
 Epidermis about 0.1 mm thick.  Melanocytes
- Synthesize pigment melanin that
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN shields DNA from ultraviolet
 Resistance to trauma and infection radiation.
- Keratin - Occur only in stratum basale but have
- Dermacidin and defensins branched processes that spread
- Acid mantle among keratinocytes and distribute
 Other barrier functions melanin.
- Water  Tactile cells
- UV radiation - Touch receptor cells associated with
- Harmful chemicals dermal nerves fibers
 Vitamin D synthesis - In basal layer of epidermis
- Skin carries out first step  Dendritic cells
- Liver and kidneys complete process - Macrophages originating in bone
 Sensation marrow that guard against pathogens.
- Skin is an extensive sense organ - Found in stratum spinosum and
- Receptors for temperature, touch, pain, and granulosum
more
 Thermoregulation
- Thermoreceptors
- Vasoconstriction/vasodilation
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
Layers of the Epidermis
 Thin skin contains four strata; thick skin
contains five strata
1. Stratum basale (deepest epidermal
layer)
- A single layer of stem cells and
keratinocytes resting on the basement
membrane
- Stem cells divide and give rise to
keratinocytes that migrate toward skin
surface to replace lost cells
- Also contains a few melanocytes and
tactile cells
2. Stratum spinosum
- Several layers of keratinocytes joined
together by desmosomes and tight
junctions
- Named for appearance of cells after
histological preparation (spiny)
- Also contains some dendritic cells
 Stratum granulosum
– Three to five layers of flat keratinocytes
– Cells contain dark-staining keratohyalin
granules
 Stratum lucidum
– Thin, pale layer found only in thick skin
– Keratinocytes packed with clear protein
eleidin
 Stratum corneum (surface layer)
– Several layers (up to 30) of dead, scaly,
keratinized cells – Resists abrasion,
penetration, water loss.
The Life History of a Keratinocyte
 Keratinocytes are produced by mitosis of
stem cells in stratum basale or mitosis of
keratinocytes in deepest part of stratum
spinosum.
- Mitosis requires abundant oxygen and
nutrients, so once cells migrate away
from blood vessels of the dermis,
mitosis cannot occur
 New keratinocytes push older ones toward
the surface
 Over time, keratinocytes flatten, produce
more keratin and membrane-coating
vesicles
 In 30 to 40 days a keratinocyte makes its
way to the skin surface and flakes off
(exfoliates) as dander –
- Slower in old age
- Faster in injured or stressed skin
 Calluses or corns—thick accumulations
of dead keratinocytes on hands or feet.
 Four important events occur in stratum
granulosum
- Keratohyalin granules release
filaggrin-a protein that binds keratin
into tough bundles
- Cells produce tough envelope proteins
beneath their membranes
- Membrane-coating vesicles release
lipid mixture that spreads out over cell
surface and waterproofs it
- Keratinocytes organelles degenerate
and the cells die
 Epidermal water barrier
- Water retention is fostered by tight
junctions between skin cells and
the waterproofing that occurs in the
stratum granulosum
 Helps prevent dehydration
 Does not prevent the
absorption of water by the
stratum corneum when we
soak in a bath (“prune
fingers”)
THE DERMIS
 DERMIS- connective tissue layer beneath
epidermis
- Ranges from 0.2 mm (eyelids) to
4mm (palms, soles)
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

- Composed mainly of collagen

- Well supplied with blood vessels,

sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
and nerve endings

- Houses hair follicles and nail roots

- Is the tissue of the facial skin to

which skeletal muscles attach and
cause facial expressions of emotion

- Has a wavy, conspicuous boundary

with the superficial epidermis.

 Dermal papillae are

upward, finger-like
extensions of dermis
 Epidermal ridges
downward waves
epidermis
 Prominent waves on fingers
produce friction ridges of
fingerprints
 Papillary layer- superficial zone of
dermis
- Thin zone of areolar tissue in and
near the dermal papilla
- Allows for mobility of leukocytes
and other defense cells
- Rich in small blood vessels
 Reticular layer- deeper and thicker layer
of dermis
- Consists of dense, irregular
connective tissue
- Stretch Marks (striae): Tears in
the collagen fibers caused by
stretching of the skin due to
pregnancy or obesity
THE HYPODERMIS
 Hypodermis
- Subcutaneous tissue
- Has more areolar and adipose than
are
dermis has
of
- Pads body and binds skin to
underlying tissues
- Common site of drug injection
since it has many bloods vessels
 Subcutaneous Fat
- Energy reservoir
- Thermal insulation
- Thicker in women
- Thinner in infants, elderly
SKIN COLOR
 Melanin- most significant factor in skin
color
- Produced by melanocytes,
accumulates in keratinocytes
- Two forms of the pigment:
 Eumelanin-brownish black
 Pheomelanin- reddish
yellow (sulfur-containing)
 People of different skin colors have the
same number of melanocytes
- Darker skinned people
 Produced greater quantities
of melanin
 Melanin breaks down more
slowly
 Melanin granules more
spread out in keratinocytes
 Melanized cells seen
throughout the epidermis
- Lighter skinned people
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

 Melanin clumped near  Hematoma—bruising (clotted blood

keratinocyte nucleus under skin)
 Little melanin seen beyond
stratum basale. THE EVOLUTION OF SKIN COLOR

 Populations that evolved in far northern

and southern latitudes (weak sun) have
light skin to allow adequate UV
 Populations that evolved at high altitudes
or dry climates (less UV filtering) also are
darker skinned
 Importance of vitamin D for calcium
(crucial for pregnancy, lactation) might
explain why women are lighter skinned
than men .

 Other factors complicate the association

 Exposure to UV light stimulates melanin
between UV exposure and skin tone
secretion and darkens skin.
- This color fades as melanin is
- Migration, cultural differences in clothing,
degraded and old cells are
and shelter
exfoliated.
 Other pigments can influence skin color
- Intermarriage of people of different
- Hemoglobin- pigment in red
geographic ancestries.
blood cells
 Adds reddish to pinkish hue
- Sexual selection: a preference in mate
to skin
choice for partners of light or dark
- Carotene- yellow pigment
complexion .
acquired from egg yolks and
yellow/orange vegetables.
SKIN MARKINGS
 Concentrates in stratum
corneum and subcutaneous
fat.  Friction ridges- markings on the
fingertips that leave oily fingerprints on
surfaces we touch.
COLORS OF DIAGNOSTIC VALUE
- Everyone has a unique pattern
 Cyanosis—blueness due to oxygen
formed during fetal developments
deficiency
that remains unchanged
throughout life
 Erythema—redness due to increased
blood flow to skin
- Not even identical twins have
identical fingerprints.
 Pallor—paleness due to decreased blood
flow to skin
- Allow manipulation of small
objects
 Albinism—milky white skin and blue-
gray eyes due to genetic lack of melanin
synthesizing enzyme  Flexion line (flexion creases)- lines on the
flexor surface of the digits, palms, wrists,
 Jaundice—yellowing due to bilirubin in elbows.
blood (can be caused by compromised
liver function) - Mark sites where skin folds during
flexion of joints
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
- Skin bound to deeper tissues along
these lines.
 Freckles and moles- tan to black
aggregations of melanocytes.
- Freckles- flat, melanized patches
- Moles (nevi)- elevated, melanized
patches often with hair
 Moles should be watched
for changes in color,
diameter, or contour that
may suggest cancer.
 Hemangiomas (birthmarks) – patches of
discolored skin caused by benign tumors
of derma capillaries.
- Some disappear in childhood,
others last for life.
- Capillary hemangiomas, cavernous
hemangiomas, port-wine stain
HAIR AND NAILS
 Expected Learning Outcomes
- Distinguish between three types of
hair.
- Describe the histology of a hair and
its follicle.
- Discuss some theories of the
purposes served by various kinds
of hair.
- Describe the structure and function
of nails.
 Hair, nails, and cutaneous glands are
accessory organs (appendages) of the
skin
 Hair and nails are composed of mostly
dead, keratinized cells
- Pliable soft keratin makes up stratum
corneum of skin.
- Compact hard keratin makes up hair
and nails
 Tougher and more compact
due to numerous cross-
linkages between keratin
molecules.
 Pilus- another name for a hair; pili- plural
of pilus
 Hair- a slender filament of keratinized
cells growing from a tube in the skin called
a hair follicle
 Hair covers most of the body
- Hair does not cover: palms, soles;
palmar, plantar, and lateral surfaces
and distal segments of fingers and toes;
lips, nipples, and parts of genitals
- Limbs and trunk have 55 to 70 hairs
per cm squared.
 Face has about 10 times as
many
 Three types of hair
- Lanugo: fine, downy, unpigmented
hair that appears on the fetus in the last
3 months of development.
- Vellus: fine, pale hair that replaces
lanugo by time of birth
 Two-thirds of the hair of
women
 One-tenth of the hair of
men
 All of hair of children
except eyebrows, eyelashes,
and hair of the scalp
- Terminal: longer, coarser, and more
heavily pigmented
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
 Forms eyebrows, eyelashes,
and the hair of the scalp
 After puberty, forms the
axillary and pubic hair.
 Male facial hair and some
hair on the trunks and
limbs.
STRUCTURE OF THE HAIR AND
FOLLICLE
 Hair is divisible into three zones along
its length
- Bulb: a swelling at the base where hair
originates in dermis or hypodermis
 Only living hair cells are in
or near bulb.
- Root: the remainder of the hair in the
follicle
- Shaft: the portion above the skin
surface
HAIR TEXTURE AND COLOR
 Dermal papilla- bud of vascular
connective tissue encased by bulb
– Only source of nutrition for hair.
 Hair
immediately above papilla
- Hair’s growth center.
 Three layers of the hair in cross section
- Medulla
 Core of loosely arranged cells and air
spaces
– Cortex
 Constitutes bulk of the hair
 Consist of several layers of elongated
keratinized cells
- Cuticle
 Composed of multiple layers of very
thin, scaly cells that overlap each
other
 Free edges directed upward
 Follicle- diagonal tube that extends into
dermis and possible hypodermis
- Epithelial root sheath
 Extension of the epidermis lying
adjacent to hair root
 Widens at deep end into bulge-
source of stem cells for follicle.
- Connective tissue root sheath
 Derived from dermis but a bit denser
 Surrounds epithelial root sheath
 Hair receptors- sensory nerve fibers
entwining follicles
 Piloerector muscle ( arrector pili)-
smooth muscle attaching follicle to dermis
- Contracts to make hair stand on end
(goose bumps)
 Texture- related to cross-sectional shape
of hair
- Straight hair is round
- Wavy hair is oval
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
- Curly hair is relatively flat
 Color- due to pigmented granules in the
cells of the cortex
- Brown and black hair is rich in
eumelanin
- Red hair has high concentration of
pheomelanin
- Blond hair has intermediate amount of
pheomelanin and very little eumelanin
- Gray and white hair have little or no
melanin
 Air present in medulla.
HAIR GROWTH AND LOSS
 Three stages of hair cycle
- Anagen: growth stage
 90% of scalp follicles at a given
time
 Stem cells multiply
 Root sheath cells above papilla
form hair cells of hair matrix
 Hair cells make keratin and die as
they are pushed upward.
- Catagen: degeneration stage
 Mitosis in hair matrix ceases and
sheath cells below bulge die
 Base of hair keratinizes into a hard
club- club hair
• Easily pulled out by brushing
- Telogen: resting stage
 When papilla reaches the bulge
 We lose about 50-100 hairs daily
- A club hair may fall out during catagen
or telogen or be pushed out in the next
anagen phase
- In young adults, scalp follicles spend
6–8 years in anagen, 2–3 weeks in
catagen, 1–2 months in telogen
 Hair growth- scalp hairs grow 1mm per 3
days
 Alopecia- thinning of the hair or baldness
 Pattern baldness- hair lost from select
regions
– Baldness allele is dominant in males and
expressed when testosterone levels are
high
– Testosterone causes terminal hair on top of
scalp to be replaced by vellus hair .
 Hirsutism- excessive or undesirable
hairiness in areas that are not usually hairy
FUNCTIONS OF HAIR
 Most hair on trunk and limbs is vestigial
- Has little present function but kept
ancestors warm
 Hair receptors alert us of parasites
crawling on skin
 Scalp retains heat and protects again
sunburn
 Pubic and axillary hair signify sexual
maturity and aid transmission of sexual
scents
 Guard hair (vibrissae)
- Guard nostrils and ear canals
 Eyelashes and eyebrows
- Nonverbal communication
NAILS
 Fingernails and toenails- clear, hard
derivatives of stratum corneum
- Composed of thin, dead cells packed
with hard keratin.
 Functions:
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
- Improve grooming, picking apart food,
other manipulations
- Provide a counterforce to enhance
sensitivity of fleshy fingertips to tiny
objects
 Nail plate- hair part of the nail
- Free edge: overhangs the fingertip
- Nail body: visible attached part of nail
- Nail root: extends proximally under
overlying skin
 The skin has five types of glands:
SWEAT GLANDS
 Two kinds of sweat (sudoriferous)
 Nail food- surrounding skin rising above
nail
 Nail groove- separates nail fold from nail
plate
 Nail bed- skin underlying the nail plate
- Hyponychium- epidermis of the nail
bed
 Nail matrix- growth zone (mitotic) of
thickened stratum basale at proximal end
of nail
- 1 mm per week in fingernails, slightly
slower in toenails
- Lunule- opaque white crescent at
proximal end of nail due to thickness
of matrix
 Eponychium (cuticle)- narrow zone of
dead skin overhanging proximal end of
nail
CUTANEOUS GLANDS
 Expected Learning Outcomes
- Name two types of sweat glands and
describe the structure and function of
each.
- Describe the location, structure, and
function of sebaceous and ceruminous
glands.
- Discuss the distinction between breasts
and mammary glands and explain their
respective function.
merocrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat
glands, sebaceous glands, ceruminous
glands, and mammary glands
glands: apocrine and merocrine
- Apocrine sweat glands
 Location: groin, anal region,
axilla, areola, beard area in men
 Inactive until puberty
- Ducts lead to nearby hair follicles
- Produce sweat that is milky and
contains fatty acids
- Respond to stress and sexual
stimulation
 Believed to secrete pheromones-
chemicals that can influence
behavior of other
- Bromhidrosis- disagreeable body odor
produced by bacterial action on sweat
from apocrine glands.
- Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands
 Most numerous skin glands- 3 to 4
million in adult skin
• Especially dense on palms,
soles, and forehead
 Simple tubular glands
 Watery perspiration that helps cool
the body
- Myoepithelial cells- contract in
response to stimulation by sympathetic
nervous system and squeeze
perspiration up the duct.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

 Found in both apocrine and  Mammary glands—milk-producing

merocrine glands.
 Sweat- begins as a protein- free filtrate of
blood plasma produced by deep secretory
portion of gland.
- Some sodium chloride and other small
solutes remain in the sweat
 Some sodium chloride
reabsorbed by duct
- Some drugs are excreted in sweat
- On average, 99% water, with pH range
of 4 to 6
 Acid mantle- inhibits bacterial
growth
- Insensible perspiration- 500 mL/day
 Does not produce visible
wetness of skin
- Diaphoresis- sweating with wetness of
the skin
 Exercise- may lose 1L sweat pr
hour.
glands that develop only during pregnancy
and lactation
– Modified apocrine sweat glands.
– Rich secretion released through ducts
opening at nipple
 Mammary ridges or milk lines
– Two rows of mammary glands in
most mammals
– Primates kept only two glands, but a
few people have additional nipples
along the milk line (polythelia)
CUTANEOUS GLANDS

SEBACEOUS GLANDS

 Sebaceous glands are flask-shaped and

have short ducts opening into hair
follicles.
 Holocrine secretion style
 Sebum- oily secretion of sebaceous glands
- Keeps skin and hair from becoming
dry, brittle, ana cracked
- Lanolin- sheep sebum

CERUMINOUS GLANDS
 Ceruminous glands are simple, coiled,
tubular glands in external ear canal.
 Their secretion combines with sebum and
dead epithelial cells to form earwax
(cerumen)
- Keeps eardrum pliable
- Waterproofs the canal
- Kills bacteria
- Makes guard hairs of ear sticky to help
block foreign particles from entering
auditory canal.
SKIN ORDERS
 Expected Learning Outcomes
- Describe the three most common forms
of skin cancer.
- Describe the three classes of burns and
the priorities in burn treatment.
SKIN CANCER
• Skin cancer—most cases caused by UV rays of
the sun damaging skin cell DNA

- Most often on the head, neck, and

hands
Mammary Glands - Most common in fair-skinned people
and the elderly
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB
- One of the most common, easily
treated cancers
- Has one of the highest survival rates if
detected and treated early
 Three types of skin cancer named for the
epidermal cells in which they originate.
- Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell
carcinoma, and malignant melanoma
 Basal cell carcinoma
- Most common type
- Least dangerous because it seldom
metastasizes
- Forms from cells in stratum basale
- Lesion is small, shiny bump with
central depression and beaded edges
 Squamous cell carcinoma
- Arises from keratinocytes of stratum
spinosum
- Lesions usually on scalp, ears, lower
lip, or back of the hand
- Have raised, reddened, scaly
appearance later forming a concave
ulcer
- Chance of recovery good with early
detection and surgical removal
- Tends to metastasize to lymph nodes
and may become lethal
 Malignant melanoma
- Skin cancer that arises from
melanocytes
- Less than 5% of skin cancers, but most
deadly form
- Can be successfully removed if caught
early, but if it metastasizes it is usually
fatal
- Greatest risk factor: Familial history of
malignant melanoma
- Highest incidence in men, redheads,
and people who had severe sunburn as
a child.
BURNS
 Burns- leading cause of accidental death
- Fires, kitchen spills, sunlight, ionizing
radiation, strong acids or bases, or
electrical shock
- Deaths result primarily from fluid loss,
infection, and toxic effects of eschar
(burned, dead tissue)
- Debridement: removal of eschar
 Classified according to depth of tissue
involvement
- First-degree burn: involves only
epidermis
 Redness, slight edema, and pain
 Heals in days
- Second-degree burn: partial-thickness
burn; involves part of dermis
 May appear red, tan, or white;
blistered and painful
 Two weeks to several months
to heal and may leave scars
- Third-degree burn: Full-thickness
burn; involves epidermis, all of dermis,
and often some deeper tissues
 Often requires skin grafts
 Needs fluid replacement,
infection control, supplemental
nutrition.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB

UV RAYS AND SUNSCREEN

 UVA and UVB are improperly called
“tanning rays” and “burning rays”
- Both thought to initiate skin cancer
- No such thing as a “healthy tan”
 Sunscreens protect you from sunburn but
unsure if they provide protection against
cancer
- High SPF numbers can give false sense
of security
- Chemical in sunscreen damage DNA
and generate harmful free radicals.
SKIN GRAFTS AND ARTIFICIAL SKIN
 Third-degree burns often require skin
grafts
 Graft options
- Autograft: tissue taken from another
location on the same person’s body
 Split-skin graft- taking
epidermis and part of the
dermis from an undamaged
area such as the thigh or
buttocks and grafting it into the
burned area.
 Isograft: skin from identical
twin
 Temporary grafts (immune system
rejection)
- Homograft (allograft): from unrelated
person
- Heterograft (xenograft): from another
species
- Amnion from afterbirth
- Artificial skin from silicone and
collagen.