INTRODUCTION:
the same purpose; structures that perform the
Aristotle; the father of biology, a Greek
philosopher and polymath
CHAPTER 1: Characteristics of Living
Organisms
All living organisms share several key
characteristics or functions.
Eight Characteristics that is served to define
life
Order – organisms are highly organized
structures that consist of one or more cells.
They are specialized to perform specific
functions.
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli –
organisms respond to diverse stimuli.
Ex. Plants can bend towards a source of light
or respond to touch.
Movement toward a stimulus is considered a
positive response, while movement away is
considered a negative response.
Reproduction – single-celled organisms
reproduced by first duplicating their DNA,
which is the genetic material, and then
dividing it equally as the cell prepares to
divide to form two new cells.
When reproduction occurs, DNA containing
genes is passed along to an offspring.
Adaptation – “fit to their environment”.
Biologists refer to this fit as adaptation and it
is consequence of evolution by Natural
Selection.
Natural Selection by Charles Darwin
“different survival and reproduction of
individuals due to differences in phenotype”.
Analogous – different structure but same
function; similar structures that evolved
independently into two living organisms for
same function but are found in creatures with
different ancestral origins.
Homologous – same structures but not
always perform the same function;
structures found in related organisms that
were passed down from a common ancestor.
Growth and Development – organisms grow
and develop according to specific instructions
coded by their genes.
Body Clock – is referred to an internal
mechanism that periodically schedules the
body’s activities and functions.
Regulation – organisms are complex and
require multiple regulatory mechanisms to
coordinate internal functions; response to
particular changes in internal and external
conditions.
Homeostasis – also known as “steady state”;
the ability of an organism to maintain
constant internal conditions; any self-
regulating process by which an organism
tends to maintain stability while adjusting to
conditions that are best for its survival.
Energy Processing – all organisms use a
source of energy for their metabolism
activities; breakdown of food molecules
enables cells to store energy in new molecules
that are used to carry out the many functions
of the cell and thus the organism.
CHAPTER 2: Microscope
Micro “tiny”, scope “view or look”.
Microscope – are tools used to enlarge
images of small objects so as they can be
studied.
Microscopy – is known as the process of
using microscope in investigating or
studying microorganism.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is considered as
the father of microscope because of the
advances he made.
Types of Microscope
Light microscope – majority of microscope
since they rely on light to observe the
specimen.
Two Main Categories
Compound Microscope (high power
microscope) - most common type of
microscope. Uses light to illuminate the
specimen or object so that you can see it
with your eye.
Stereo Microscope (low power microscope)
– second most common. Low power is used
for examining larger sized items like
insects’ parts, plants and flower parts, and
rocks and fossils.
Parts of Microscope
Eyepiece Lens: lens at the top that you look
through; usually 10x or 15x power.
Tube: connects the eyepiece to the objective
lenses.
Arm: supports the tube and connects it to the
base.
Based: bottom of the microscope; used for
support.
Illuminator: a steady light source (110 volts)
used in place of a mirror.
Stage: the flat platform where you put your
slides.
Stage clip: holds the slides in place.
Revolving Nosepiece or Turret: part that
holds two or more objective lenses a can be
rotated.
Objective Lenses: are the optical elements
closest to the specimen.
4 Types of Objective Lenses
1. Scanning Objective Lens (10x)
2. High Power Lens (40x)
3. Low Power Lens (10x)
4. Oil Immersion Lens (100x)
Rock Stop: adjustment that determines how
close the objective lenses can get to the
slide.
Diaphragm or Iris: used to vary the
intensity and size of the cone of light that is
projected upward into the slide and has
different sized holes.
Coarse Adjustment: always used first;
covers the entire range; also known as initial
focal adjustment.
Fine Adjustment: used with the high power
objective to bring the specimen into better
focus; covers a fraction of the entire range;
also known as final focal adjustment.
Difference between Compound and Stereo
Microscope
Compound Microscope provides much
greater magnification power, such as 2D
visualization and is better suited to inspect the
microscopic structure in much lower
specimens. While Stereo Microscope offer a
lower magnification but useful qualities such
as 3D visualization and depth perception.
This makes them ideal for visualization of
larger objects.
CHAPTER 3: Chemistry
(Organic & Inorganic chemistry)
Organic compounds mainly result from the
activities of a living being. In contrast,
inorganic compounds are obtained from
natural processes which are not related to any
of the life forms on earth or any result of
human experiments which are conducted in
laboratories.
Organic compounds are said to be more
volatile and also highly inflammable.
Inorganic compounds are not inflammable
and are non-volatile in nature.
Monosaccharide – simplest form of
carbohydrates; composed of a single
molecule or subunit or single sugar molecule.
Eg. Glucose, fructose, galactose
Disaccharide – composed of two
monosaccharides linked together.
Eg. Sucrose, maltose, lactose
Polysaccharide – composed of 3 or more
monosaccharide linked together.
- Eg. Starch, cellulose, glycogen
-
Alkane - molecule consisting of only carbon
and hydrogen atoms connected by single (σ)
bonds.
Alkene - molecule consisting of carbon and
hydrogen containing at least one carbon-
carbon double bond.
Alkyne - molecule consisting of carbon and
hydrogen containing at least one carbon-
carbon triple bond.
CHAPTER 4: Cell - Organelles (Parts)
Cell – is the most structural and functional
unit of life.
Unifying Themes
Cell Theory: description of living systems
- Basic unit of life
- All organisms consist of cells
- All cells come from pre-existing cells
Continuity: molecular basis of inheritance
- Heredity which is the continuity of
life from one generation to the next is
dependent on the faithful copying of
the cell’s DNA into daughter cells.
Function and Structure: are independent
- When we study the structure of the
molecules and macromolecules
complexes, we also learn about their
function.
Evolution: prompts diversity of life
- All life has evolved from the same
origin.
2 Types of Cells
a. Prokaryotic Cells - cells only found
in bacteria and archaea; lack of
nucleus and organelles and have cell
wall and cell membrane.
b. Eukaryotic Cells – cells found in all
organisms except bacteria and
archaea; contains subcellular
 structures called organelles, including
nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
Organelles
Three Suicidal Organelles
Lysosome – digest unwanted material;
digest or destroy the cell itself. Called
“suicide bags”.
Peroxisome – breaks down fatty acids or
toxic materials in the cell and oxidative
enzymes for metabolic activity; small
vesicle, single membrane-bound organelles
found in eukaryotic cells.
Centrosome-major microtubule; plays
fundamental roles in organizing the
cytoskeletal network and the mitotic
spindle. Responsible for the formation of the
spindle apparatus during the cell division.
Nucleus - a large double-membrane organelle
that is sometimes referred to as the “central
unit” of the cell because it contains the
chromosomes that bear the genetic material.
Sub parts:
Nuclear Envelope – also known as nuclear
membrane, made up of two lipid bilayer
membranes. This encloses the genetic
material.
Nuclear Pore - a protein-lined channel in the
nuclear envelope that regulates the
transportation of molecules between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Nuclear Lamina - involved in the regulation
of numerous nuclear processes.
Nucleolus - a spherical structure found in the
cell's nucleus whose primary function is to
produce and assemble the cell's ribosomes.
Nucleoplasm – central area in the cell that
contains genetic material.
Golgi Apparatus - responsible for
transporting, modifying, and packaging
proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery
to targeted destinations. And discovered by
Camillo Golgi an Italian cytologist.
Sub parts:
Cisternae - a flattened membrane vesicle
found in the endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi apparatus.
Lumen - cavity or channel within a tube or
tubular organ.
Ribosome – an intercellular structure made of
both RNA and protein, and it is the site of
protein synthesis in the cell.
Cytoplasm - the gelatinous liquid that fills
the inside of a cell. It is composed of water,
salts, and various organic molecules.
and Golgi apparatus until the cell is ready to
release them.
Mitochondria - double membrane
structure and use aerobic respiration to
generate adenosine triphosphate, which is
used throughout the cell as a source of
chemical energy.
Outer membrane: Small molecules can pass
freely through the outer membrane.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - network of

membranes inside a cell through which
proteins and other molecules move.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - organelle

Matrix: This is the space within the inner
found in both animal cells and plant cells. An
membrane. Containing hundreds of enzymes,
organelle is a sub-unit within a cell that has a
it is important in the production of ATP.
specialized function. The main function of the
smooth ER is to make cellular products like Cristae: These are the folds of the inner
hormones and lipids. membrane.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - reticulum Inner Membrane: This membrane holds
has on it ribosomes, which are small, round proteins that have several roles.
organelles whose function it is to make those
proteins. CHAPTER 5: Cell Division/Cell
Reproduction
Cell Membrane - also called the plasma
membrane, is found in all cells and
separates the interior of the cell from the Cancer Uncontrolled cell
outside environment. Nuclei growth
Nucleolus Cell nucleus
Phospholipids - amphiphilic molecules with
Nucleus Centre of nucleus
hydrophobic fatty acid chains and hydrophilic
Rough Pairing Centre of cell
moieties. Composed of hydrophilic "head"
Telomeres Finding partner
containing a phosphate group and two
Centromeres Tip of chromosome
hydrophobic "tails". Also known as
Alleles Centre of chromosome
phospatide.
Characteristics/ traits
Cell Wall - a structural layer surrounding
some types of cells.
Cell Division
Secretory Vesicle - stores molecules and
proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum
Mitosis – for growth, repair of damage,
produce body cells, makes identical cells.
- Cells at the end of prophase, when
viewed under the microscope, do not
show Golgi complexes, endoplasmic
reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear
envelope.

Metaphase (middle)

- Chromosomes line up in the middle

of the spindle equator.
- Tighten the DNA so that the need
trait from head to foot can be seen
inside the chromosomes.
Interphase - Nucleus has been disassembled, no
longer there.
G1 Phase – getting DNA ready to form
chromosomes, growth, and DNA preparation Anaphase (away)
and sister chromatids. (RNA & DNA)
- Each chromosomes move away from
S Phase – synthesize HISTONE --- is a the equatorial plate.
protein used for closing DNA, duplicate - Centromeres split and chromatids
chromosomes. separate.
- Chromatids move to opposite poles.
Organelles in S phase: ribosome, golgi
apparatus, rough ER, nucleus, mitochondria. Telophase

G2 Phase – DNA duplicate the chromosome; - Chromosomes are at the end poles
ATP produced, centrioles replicate, RNA - New nuclei formed in each side to
synthesize, double chromatin, and make 2 new cells.
cytoskeleton. - Nuclear envelope assembles around
the chromosome clusters.
Prophase (preparation) - Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER
- Nucleus is still there reform.
- Chromosomes are visible, and Cytokinesis
condensing, which means they are
thickening. Cell itself is divided into two
- Chromosomal material condenses to daughter cells.
form compact mitotic chromosomes. - Final separation into 2 cells by
- Chromosomes are seen to be splitting Cytoplasm.
composed of two chromatids attached
together at the centromere. Initiation Meiosis
of the assembly of mitotic spindle,
- Responsible for sperm
the microtubules, the proteinaceous
“spermatocyte” and egg cells
components of the cell cytoplasm
“oocyte” (Gametes)
help in the process.
 - Ensures the production of haploid - Chromosomes are going to be pulled
phase in the life cycle of sexually by spindle fibers.
reproducing organisms whereas - The homologous chromosomes
fertilisation restores the diploid separate, while sister chromatids
phase. remain associated at their
- Meiosis involves pairing of centromeres.
homologous chromosomes and
recombination between them. Telophase I
- Meiosis I is initiated after the parental - Nuclei will form, nucleus and nuclear
chromosomes have replicated to membrane reappeared.
produce identical sister chromatids at
the S phase. Meiosis II
- Four haploid cells are formed at the
end of meiosis II. Prophase II

Meiosis I - The chromosomes thicken/condenses

Stages of Prophase I
Leptotene – condensation of chromatin
occurs to form chromosomes
Zygotene – forming of synapsis and is
demarcated by beginning of formation of
synaptonemal complex.
Pachytene – exchange of genetic material
called crossover/crossing over.
Diplotene – separated to each other but not
totally, they are still attached to each other but
there are now two different entities. Chiasma
formation or cross like structure.
Diakenises – move apart from each other.
The chiasma becomes more prominent.
Metaphase I
- Chromosomes will line in the middle
(equatorial line) that are connected to
spindle fiber.
- The microtubules from the opposite
poles of the spindle attach to the pair
of homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I
and nuclear membrane breaks down,
so that the nucleus will easily break
down.
- Sister chromatids condenses, spindle
fiber begins to form.
Metaphase II
- Will align in the middle but in one
single file (1 chromosome per spindle
fiber)
-
Anaphase II
- Pulled away by the spindle fiber.
- It begins with the simultaneous
splitting of the centromere of each
chromosome allowing them to move
toward opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II
- Nuclear membrane (nuclei) reform
- Two groups of chromosomes once
again get enclosed by a nuclear
envelope.
Cytokinesis
- Will completely split the cytoplasm
 - Will form four daughter cells
Cell Transport
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
—they allow some substances through but not
others.
Passive transport - a naturally occurring
phenomenon and does not require the cell to
expend energy to accomplish the movement.
In passive transport, substances move from an
area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration in a process called
diffusion.
A physical space in which there is a different
concentration of a single substance is said to
have a concentration gradient.
Plasma membranes are asymmetric,
meaning that despite the mirror image formed
by the phospholipids, the interior of the
membrane is not identical to the exterior of
the membrane.
In facilitated transport, also called
facilitated diffusion, material moves across
the plasma membrane with the assistance of
Tran’s membrane proteins down a
concentration gradient (from high to low
concentration) without the expenditure of
cellular energy.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a
semipermeable membrane according to the
concentration gradient of water across the
membrane.
Tonicity describes the amount of solute in a
solution.
Active transport mechanisms require the
use of the cell’s energy, usually in the form
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Electrochemical Gradient – is a measure of
the free energy available to carry out the
useful work of transporting the molecule
across the membrane.
Moving against a Gradient – the substance
is moving from a low concentration to a high
concentration.
Endocytosis – a type of active transport
that moves particles, such as large
molecules, part of cells, and even whole cells,
into a cell.
Phagocytosis - process by which large
particles, such as cells, are taken in by a
cell.
Exocytosis - purpose is to expel material
from the cell into the extracellular fluid.
CHAPTER 6: Types of Cells
Epithelial cells – a type of cell that covers
the inside and outside of the surfaces of
your body. They are found on your skin,
blood vessels, and organs, including your
urinary tract.
Three principal shapes:
Squamous epithelium is composed of cells
that are wider than their height (flat and
wide).
Cuboidal epithelium is composed of cells
whose height and width is approximately
the same (cube shaped).
Columnar epithelium is composed of cells
taller than they are wide.
Blood cells
Types of blood cells:
Erythrocytes – also known as red blood cell,
contain a special protein called
hemoglobin, which helps carry oxygen from
the lungs to the rest of the body and then
returns carbon dioxide from the body to the
lungs so it can be exhaled.
Leukocytes (white blood cells) - neutrophil
"immediate response"
Lymphocyte – (t lymphocyte help regulate
the function of other immune cells and
directly attack various infected cells and
tumours. B lymphocytes make antibodies,
which are proteins that specifically target
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign materials)
Nerve cells or excitable cells - transduce a
variety of stimuli into electrical signals, this
cell continuously sending information about
the external and internal environment to
the central nervous system.
Xylem parenchyma cells - store water,
which is essential for the proper functioning
of a plant.
Stem cells - are unique in that they originate
as unspecialized cells and have the ability to
develop into specialized cells that can be
used to build specific organs or tissues.
Fat cells - also called adipocytes, are a major
cell component of adipose tissue. Adipocytes
contain droplets of stored fat
(triglycerides) that can be used for energy.
CHAPTER 7: Tissue
Epithelial tissue or epithelium - lining,
covering, and the glandular tissue of the
body.
Glandular epithelium - forms various glands
in the body.
Classification of Epithelia
Simple Epithelium – most concern with
absorption, secretion, and filtration.
Simple squamous epithelium - a single
layer of thin squamous cells resting on a
basement membrane.
Simple cuboidal Epithelium - Single layer
of cuboidal cells resting on the basement
membrane, is common in glands and their
association small tubes called ducts. It also
forms the walls of the kidney tubules and
covers the surface of the ovaries.
Simple columnar Epithelium - Single layer
of tall cells that fits closely together. Goblet
cells, which produce a lubricating mucus,
are often seen in this type of epithelium. It
lines the digestive tracts from the stomach to
the anus. Epithelial membranes that line body
cavities open to the body exterior are called
mucosae, or mucous membranes.
Stratified Epithelia – consist of two or
more cell layers. Consider more durable than
the simple epithelia, these epithelia function
primarily in protection.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium - Most
common stratified epithelium. It usually
consists of many cell layers. Found in the
sites that received a good deal of abuse or
friction, such as the surface of the skin, the
mouth, and the esophagus.
Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified
Columnar Epithelium - Mostly consist of
two cell layers with (at last) the surface cell
being cuboidal in shape.
The surface cells of stratified columnar
epithelium are columnar cells, but its basal
cells vary in size and shape. Both of these
epithelia are rare and found mainly in the
ducts of large glands.
Pseudo Stratified Columnar Epithelium -
Rest on the basement membrane. Some of its
cell are shorter than others, and their nuclei
appear at different heights above the
basement membrane.
Transitional Epithelium - is a highly
modified squamous epithelium that forms
the lining of only few organs urinary bladder,
the uterus, and part of the urethra.
Glandular Epithelium - consist of one or
more cells that make and secrete a
particular product.
Two Major Glands develop from the
Epithelial Sheets
a. Endocrine Glands – often called ductless
glands. Their secretions (hormones) diffuse
directly into the blood vessels that weave
through the glands. Eg. Thyroid glands,
adrenaline gland, and pituitary glands.
b. Exocrine Glands – retain their ducts, and
their secretions exit through the ducts to the
epithelial surface. Exocrine gland includes
sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas are
both internal and external.
Connective Tissues perform many functions,
but they are primarily involved in protecting,
supporting, and binding together other
body tissues.
Hallmarks of Connective Tissue
Variations in blood supply – most
connective are well vascularized. Except
tendons and ligaments.
Extracellular matrix – connective tissues are
made up of many different types of cell plus
varying amounts of nonliving substances
found outside the cells, called extracellular
matrix.
Types of Connective tissue
Bone – sometimes called osseous tissue, is
composed of osteocytes (bone cells), siting in
the cavities called lacunae (pit). Because of its
rocklike hardness, bone has an exceptional
ability to protect and support other body
organs.
Cartilage – less and more flexible than bone.
Dense connective tissue – also called fibrous
connective tissue, collagen fibers are the
main matrix element.
Loose Connective Tissue – are softer and
have more cells and fewer fibers than any
other connective tissue type except blood.
Areolar Connective Tissue – the most
widely distributed connective tissue variety in
the body is a soft, pliable, “cobwebby” tissue
that cushions and protects the body organs
it wraps.
Adipose Connective Tissue – commonly
called fat. Basically, it is an areolar tissue in
which the adipose (fat) cells predominant.
Reticular Connective Tissue – consist of a
delicate network of interwoven reticular
fibers associated with reticular cells, which
resemble fibroblast.
Blood – or vascular tissue, considered a
connective tissue because it consists of blood
cells surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix
called blood plasma.
Muscle tissues - highly specialized to
contract, or shorten, which generate the
force required to produce movement.
Skeletal Tissue – tissue is packaged by
connective tissue sheets into organs called
skeletal muscles, which ate attached to the
skeleton. These muscles are voluntary
(consciously), form the flesh of the body,
the so-called muscular system.
Cardiac Muscle – found only in the heart
wall. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscles
have striations, but cardiac cells have only a
single nucleus and are relatively short,
branching cells that fit tightly together (like
clasped fingers) at junctions called
intercalated disc.
Smooth Muscle – no striations are visible.
The individual cells are single nucleated and
are tapered at both ends. Smooth muscles are
found in the walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.

Nervous Tissue - composed of cells called

neurons. All neuron receives and conducts
electrochemical impulses from one part of the
body to another; thus irritability and
conductivity are their two major functional
characteristics.

- Neurons are not the only cell that

compresses the nervous system.
- Specialized group of cells called
neuroglia insulate, support, and
protects the delicate neurons in the
structures of the nervous system.

WATER

Properties of Water:

1. Polar - slightly positive (H) slightly

negative (O)

2. Universal solvent - can dissolve polar and

ionic substances

3. Ice is less dense than water

4. High specific heat - takes a lot of energy

to increase temperature

5. Cohesive - (necesarry for life (plants)

movement nung water sa plants mula roots,
paakyat.