ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
such as bacterium, or of trillions of
THE HUMAN ORGANISM
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy – study of the structures of the
human body.
Physiology – study of the function of each
of these structures.
Structural and functional organization
of the human body.
Six (6) levels of organization of the body:
1. Chemical Level – involves how
atoms, such as hydrogen and
carbon, interact and combine into
molecules.
2. Cell Level – cells contain smaller
structures inside called organelles
which carry particular functions,
such as digestion and movement,
for the cell.
3. Tissue Level – characteristics of
cells and surrounding materials
determine the functions of tissue.
The body is made up of 4 basic
tissue type: Epithelial, Connective,
Muscle, and Nervous.
4. Organ Level – composed of two or
more tissue types that perform one
or more common functions.
5. Organ System Level – group of
organs that together perform one or
more common functions and
viewed as a unit. 11 major organ
system: integumentary, skeletal,
muscular, nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic,
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive.
6. Organism Level – is any living
thing considered as a whole.
Whether composed of one cell,
cells, such as humans.
Major Organs of the Body
- Brain, lungs, heart, liver, pancreas,
spleen, stomach, gallbladder,
kidneys, large intestine, small
intestine, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
6 Essential Characteristics of life:
1. Organization – interrelationship
among the parts of an organism and
how those parts interact to perform
specific functions.
2. Metabolism – ability to use energy
and to perform vital functions.
3. Responsiveness – organism’s
ability to sense changes in its
external or internal environment
and adjust to those changes.
4. Growth – an increase in the size or
number of cells, which produces an
overall enlargement of all parts of
organism.
5. Development – the changes an
organism undergoes through time,
beginning with fertilization and
ending at death.
 6. Reproduction – formations of new
cells or organisms.
Homeostasis
- the existence and maintenance of a
relatively constant environment
within a body.
Negative Feedback – one of the
mechanisms by which maintain
homeostasis or the body temperature.
- Negative means “to decrease.”
- Example, when the body
temperature is too high, sweating
occurs. Negative feedback stops
the sweating when the body
temperature returns to normal.
3 Components of Positive Feedback
Mechanism:
1. Stimulus – initial trigger that
disrupts equilibrium.
2. Sensor/Receptor – detects the
stimulus and sends signals.
3. Control Center – processes
information and determines the
response.
4. Effector – carries out the response,
intensifying the change.
5. Feedback Loop – continues to
amplify the initial stimulus.
6. Endpoint/Outcome – the
mechanism stops when a specific
outcome is achieved.
Terminology and Body Plan

3 Components of Negative Feedback

Mechanism:
1. Receptor – which monitors the
value of variable, such as body
temperature by detecting stimuli.
2. Control Center – (part of the
brain) which determines the set
point for the variables and receives
input from the receptor about the
variable.
3. Effector – (such as sweat glands)
which can adjust the value of the
variable when directed by the
control center, usually back toward
the set point.
Positive Feedback – regulatory process
that amplifies and reinforces a
physiological response to a stimulus,
typically leading to an accelerated change
in the same direction.
- Its function is to drive processes
quickly to completion or a specific
outcome, such as blood clotting,
childbirth, or fever during an
infection.
 CELL STRUCTURE AND ITS
FUNCTIONS
Cell Diversity (Shape)
o Cells differ widely in shape.
o Most cells are roughly cuboidal or
spherical.
Nucleus – DNA which directs the activity
of the cell.
Organelle – a cell component that
performs specific functions in the cell.
Eukaryotes – cell that contain a nucleus
and membrane-bound organelles.
Prokaryotes – cells that lack nuclei and
membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi,
protists) and Prokaryotes (bacteria) differ
greatly in structure.
The Parts of Cell
Most Eukaryotic Cell have 3 main
components:
o Cell Membrane
o Cytoskeleton
o Nucleus
Structure and Function of Organelles
Cell Membrane
o Structure: phospholipid bilayer
with proteins that function as
channels, markers, and receptors.
Also contains cholesterol which
provides rigidity.
o Function: selectively permeable
boundary between cell and the
external environment.
Nucleus
o Structure: is a sphere that contains
another sphere called nucleolus.
o Function: storage center of cell’s
DNA and manages cell functions.
Cell Wall
o Structure: rigid wall made up of
cellulose, proteins, and
carbohydrates.
o Function: boundary around the
plant cell outside of the cell
membrane that provide structure
and support.
Cytoplasm
o Structure: gelatin-like fluid that lies
inside the cell membrane.
o Function: contains salts, minerals,
and organic molecules. Also
surround the organelles.
Cytoskeleton
o Structure: a network of thin fibrous
elements made of microtubules
(hollow tubes) and microfilaments
(threads made out of actin).
o Function: acts as a support system
for organelles and maintains the
cell shape.
Ribosomes
 o Structure: consists of two subunits
made of protein and RNA.
o Function: location of protein
synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
o Structure: a system of membranous
tubules and sacs.
o Function: intercellular highway (a
path along molecules moves from
one part of the cell to another).
o Two types: Rough ER and Smooth
ER
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
o Prominent in cells that make large
amounts of proteins to be exported
from the cell or inserted into the
cell membrane.
o Covered with ribosomes.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
o Involved in the synthesis of lipids
and breakdown of toxic substances.
o Not covered with ribosomes.
Golgi Apparatus
o Structure: stacked flat sacs.
o Function: receives proteins from
the rER and distributes them to
other organelles or out of the cell.
o Receiving, processing, packaging,
and shipping.
Mitochondria
o Structure: folded membrane within
an outer membrane. The fold of the
inner membrane is called cristae.
o Function: converts energy stores in
food into usable energy for work.
Cellular Respiration.
o Powerhouse of the cell.
Lysosomes
o Structure: spherical organelles that
contain hydrolytic enzymes within
single membranes.
o Functions: breaks down food
particles, invading objects, or
worn-out cell parts.
Perixosomes
o Structure: spherical organelles that
contain enzymes within single
membranes.
o Function: Degrade hydrogen
peroxide, a toxic compound that
can be produced during
metabolism.
Cilia and Flagella
o Structure: hair-like organelles that
extend from the surface of cells.
When they are present in large
numbers on a cell, they are called
cilia. When they are less numerous
and longer, they are called flagella.
o Both organelles are composed of
nine pairs of microtubules
arranged around a central pair.
o Function: Cell motility.
Basal Bodies
o The microtubule assembly of a
cilium or flagellum is anchored in
the cell by a basal body.
o Structurally identical to a centriole.
Centrioles
o Structure: composed of nine sets of
triplet microtubules arranged in a
ring. Exist in pairs.
o Function: centrioles play a major
role in cell division (mitosis).
Vacuoles
o Structure: a sac of fluid surrounded
by a membrane. Very large in
plants.
 o Function: used for temporary
storage of wastes, nutrients and
water.
o
Plastids
o 3 types of plastids in plant cells:
1. Chloroplasts
2. Chromoplasts: synthesize
and store pigments
3. Leucoplasts: store food
such as starches, proteins,
and lipids
Chloroplasts
o Structure: stacked sacs (thylakoids)
that contains chlorophyll
surrounded by a double membrane.
o Function: photosynthesis
(conversion of light energy to
chemical energy stored in the
bonds of glucose)

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Functions of the Integumentary
System
- Protection.
- Temperature regulation
- Elimination
- Synthesizer
- Sensation
- Epithelial tissue - epidermis is avascular;
Structure of the Skin - composed of two
kinds of tissue: the outer epidermis and
the underlying dermis.
EPIDERMIS
The outer epidermis is composed of
stratified squamous epithelium that is
capable of keratinizing or becoming hard
and tough.
Composition - The epidermis is composed
of up to five layers or strata;
5 layers of Strata:
1. Stratum Basale - Deepest layer of
the epidermis.
2. Stratum spinosum. - The more
superficial layers.
3. Stratum granulosum - Flatter and
full of keratin.
4. Stratum lucidum. Clear or
transparent. It occurs only on the
palms of the hands and soles of the
feet.
5. Stratum corneum. Outermost
layer. 20 to 30 cells layer thick
it has no blood supply of its own.
Keratinocytes - Most cells of the
epidermis are keratinocytes (keratin cells),
which produce keratin, the fibrous protein
that makes the epidermis a tough
protective layer.
Cornified cells - Dead cell remnants,
completely filled with keratin, are referred
to as cornified or horny cells.
Keratin - Tough protein; provide a durable
“overcoat” for the body, which protects
deeper cells from the hostile external
environment.
Melanin - A pigment that ranges in color
from yellow to brown to black, is
produced by melanocytes.
Melanosomes - It accumulates within
them in membrane-bound granules called
melanosome.
DERMIS
The underlying dermis is mostly made up
of dense connective tissue.

Major regions - The dense (fibrous)
connective tissue making up the dermis
consists of;
2 MAJOR REGIONS
1. Papillary layer - upper dermal
region; it is uneven and has peg-
like projections from its superior
surface called dermal papillae.
2. Reticular layer - the deepest skin
layer; contains blood vessels, sweat
and oil glands, and deep pressure
receptors called Pacinian
corpuscles.
Collagen - responsible for the toughness
of the dermis; they also attract water to
keep the skin hydrated.
Elastic fibers - give the skin its elasticity
when we are young, and as we age, the
number of collagen and elastic fibers
decreases and the subcutaneous tissue
loses fat.
Blood vessels - maintaining body
temperature homeostasis.
Nerve supply - many of the nerve endings
have specialized receptor end-organs that
send messages to the central nervous
system for interpretation when they are
stimulated by environmental factors.
APPENDAGES OF SKIN
Cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicle,
and nails.
Cutaneous Glands - Formed by the cells
of the stratum Basale.
Exocrine glands - Ctaneous glands are all
exocrine glands that release their
secretions to the skin surface via ducts
sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
2 TYPES OF CUTANEOUS GLANDS
Sebaceous (oil) glands - Oil, glands are
found all over the skin, except on palms
and the soles.
- The product of the sebaceous
glands, sebum.
Sweat glands - sudoriferous glands, are
widely distributed in the skin, and there are
two types;
o Eccrine glands: “pore on skin”
are found all over the body; they
produce sweat.
o Apocrine glands: found on the
axillary and genital areas of the
body.
HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES
Hairs – is produced by a hair follicle, and
is a flexible epithelial structure.
Root - part of the hair enclosed in the
follicle is the root.
Shaft - projecting from the surface of the
scalp or skin is called the shaft.
Formation - formed by the division of
well-nourished stratum basale epithelium.
Composition - Each hair is made up of a
central core called the medulla surrounded
by a bulky cortex layer.
Cuticle - formed by a single layer of cells
that overlap one another like shingles on
the roof.
Hair pigment - is made by melanocytes.
Hair follicles - Hair follicles are actually
compound structures.
Epidermal sheath - composed of
epithelial tissue and forms the hair.
Dermal sheath - is actually dermal
connective tissue.
Papilla - Its nipple-like papilla provides
the blood supply to the matrix in the hair
bulb.
Arrector pili - Small bands of
smooth muscle. “goosebumps”
NAILS
Nail folds. The borders of the nail are
overlapped by skin folds, called nail folds.
Cuticle. The thick proximal nail fold is
commonly called the cuticle.
Nail bed. The stratum basale of the
epidermis extends beneath the nail as the
nail bed.
Nail matrix. Its thickened proximal area,
the nail matrix, is responsible for nail
growth.
Color. Nails are transparent and nearly
colorless, but they look pink because of the
rich blood supply in the underlying dermis.
Lunula. The exception to the pinkish color
of the nails is the region over the thickened
nail matrix that appears as a white crescent
and is called the lunula.”
Development of Skin Color
Three pigments and even emotions
contribute to skin color:
o Melanin. The amount and kind
(yellow, reddish brown, or black)
of melanin in the epidermis.
o Carotene. Is an orange-yellow
pigment abundant in carrots and
other orange, deep yellow, or leafy
green vegetables; the skin tends to
take on a yellow-orange cast when
the person eats large amounts of
carotene-rich foods.
 o Hemoglobin. The amount of
oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the
dermal blood vessels.
Hair Growth Cycle
3 stages of growth and shedding: anagen,
catagen, and telogen.
o Anagen. Anagen is the active
phase of hair; the cells in the root
of the hair are dividing rapidly; a
new hair is formed and pushes
the club hair (a hair that has
stopped growing or is no longer in
the anagen phase) up the follicle
and eventually out.
o Catagen. The catagen phase is a
transitional stage; growth stops and
the outer root sheath shrinks and
attaches to the root of the hair.
Functions of the Skeletal System
o Telogen. Telogen is the resting
phase; during this phase, the hair
follicle is completely at rest and the
club hair is completely formed.
NAIL GROWTH
more distal cells become nonviable
and lose nuclei.
o Sterile matrix. The area of the
sterile matrix is distal to the lunula
and it has a variable amount of nail
growth; it contributes to squamous
cells, aiding in nail strength and
thickness and it has a role in nail
plate adherence by linear ridges in
the sterile matrix epithelium.
o Dorsal roof of the nail
fold. The nail is produced in a
similar manner as the germinal
matrix, but the cells lose nuclei
more rapidly and it imparts
shine to the nail plate.

 Support
 Protection
 Movement
 Storage
 Blood cell formation

Nail growth 3 areas: (1) germinal matrix, 

(2) sterile matrix, and (3) dorsal roof of the
nail fold. Anatomy of the Skeletal System

o Germinal matrix. It is found on The skeleton is subdivided into two

the ventral floor of the nail fold; divisions: the AXIAL and
the nail is produced by gradient APPENDICULAR.
parakeratosis, then cells near the
periosteum of the phalanx duplicate
and enlarge (macrocytosis); newly
formed cells migrate distally and
dorsally in a column toward the
nail; cells meet resistance at the
established nail, causing them to
flatten and elongate as they are
incorporated into the nail; it
initially retains nuclei (lunula);
  Osteon or Haversian system

 ++++Canaliculi
 Perforating canals (Volkmann’s)

Skull is formed by two sets of bones:

the cranium and the facial bones.

CRANIUM
Frontal bone
Parietal bones
Classification of Bones Lateral Bones
Temporal bones
2 basic types of bone tissue: compact Occipital bone
bone and spongy tissue, and are Sphenoid bone
classified into four groups according to Foramen ovale
shape: long, short, flat, and irregular. Optic canal
Sphenoid sinuses
 Compact Bones Ethmoid bone
 Spongy Bones
 Long Bones Fourteen bones compose the face;
 Short bones twelve are paired, only the mandible
 Flat bones and vomer are single.
 Irregular bones
Maxillae
Gross structure of a long bone consists
Palatine bones
of the following:
Zygomatic bones
Lacrimal bones
 Diaphysis Nasal bones
 Sharpey’s fibers Vomer bone
 Epiphyses. Inferior nasal conchae]’
 Articular cartilage
 Epiphyseal line Mandible
 Epiphyseal plate Hyoid Bone
 Yellow marrow
 Red marrow
 Bone marking

Microscopic Anatomy of Long Bone

 Osteocytes
 Lacunae
 Lamellae