WHAT IS A CELL?

A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, whether made of one cell (like
bacteria) or many cells (like a human), is called an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building
blocks of all organisms. Several cells of one kind that interconnect with each other and perform
a shared function form tissues; several tissues combine to form an organ (your stomach, heart,
or brain); and several organs make up an organ system (such as the digestive system,
circulatory system, or nervous system). Several systems that function together form an
organism (like a human being). There are many types of cells all grouped into one of two broad
categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. For example, both animal and plant cells are classified
as eukaryotic cells, whereas bacterial cells are classified as prokaryotic. The primary distinction
between these two types of organisms is that eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus
and prokaryotic cells do not.
Your body has many kinds of cells, each specialized for a specific purpose. Just as a
home is made from a variety of building materials, the human body is constructed from many
cell types. For example, epithelial cells protect the surface of the body and cover the organs and
body cavities within. Bone cells help to support and protect the body. Cells of the immune
system fight invading bacteria. Additionally, blood and blood cells carry nutrients and oxygen
throughout the body while removing carbon dioxide. Each of these cell types plays a vital role
during the growth, development, and day-to-day maintenance of the body. Despite their
enormous variety, however, cells from all organisms—even ones as diverse as bacteria, onion,
and human—share certain fundamental characteristics.

THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

 CHARACSTERISTICS

1. MOVEMENT

2. RESPIRATION The act of breathing; set of metabolic

reactions and processes which takes place in
our cells

3. SENSITIVITY Where we associate or connect the presence

of the stimuli; stimulus response

4. GROWTH Increase in the number and sizes of cell

5. REPRODUCTION Sustaining life; sexual reproduction of our

body cells to continue living and life itself

6. EXCRETION Removal of wastes produced by cellular

activity

7. NUTRITION The energy of the cells needs to be observed

so that we can get the right amount of
nutrients for it is needed by our cells to
continue our cells to function.

THE CELL THEORY

THE UNDERSTANFING OF THE CELLS AND ITS STRUCTURE WHEN:
● Robert Hooke observed the cork which led to the coinage of the term “cell.”
● Another major discovery was made by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, who is the father of
microscopy, in 1676 when he observed tiny organisms in a pond of water in which he
called, “animalcules.”

Due to these major discoveries about the cells, different biologists began their study as
well which later led to the Cell Theory. There are three contributors to this theory: Matthias
Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow. Schleiden discovered that plants are
composed of cells while Schwann observed animal cells. On the other hand, Virchow stated that
cells came from preexisting cells. With these contributions, three statements are formed
explaining the Cell Theory:

1. Matthias Schleiden: All living organisms are made up of cells.

2. Theodor Schwann: The cell is considered as the basic unit of life.
3. Rudolf Virchow: Cell Division; Omni cellula - e cellula; Cells divide to form new cells.

As years passed by, advanced technology helped us to improve our ways on how to
understand the cells. Because of this, the Modern Cell Theory was formulated with three
statements:
1. The cells of all organisms within a similar species may contain the same
chemical composition.
2. The DNA is passed during cellular division.
3. There should be an energy flow within the cell. Energy flows within the
cell because chemical composition cells are mostly similar. Meaning, if they
are similar species and they have the same chemical composition they
should have the same body composition/physical composition. Another thing
to note is that for it to function, it needs energy through consuming the right
amounts of nutrition needed by the other cells.

MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELLS

Now that we are done learning about the statements of the cell theory, it is now the time
to fully understand the parts and functions of a cell. In this module, the parts of the cell are
grouped according to their functions namely: 1) protection, 2) genetic control, 3) manufacture,
storage, distribution, and breakdown, 4) energy processing, and 5) support, movement, and
communication.

Figure 1.2 Animal cell (left) and Plant cell (right)

A.PROTECTION
PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTIONS / FUNCTIONS
 1. Cell Wall (PC) ● Made up of peptidoglycan - prokaryotic cells
● Made up of cellulose - plant cells
● Used for protection and support

2. Cell Membrane / Plasma ● Made up of two layers of phospholipid bilayer

Membrane (AC/PC) ● Selectively permeable membrane
● Transports protein
● Participate in metabolic processes
● Provides fixed environment inside the cell
● Fluid Mosaic Model – explains the structure of
the cell membrane
● Micorvilli - are finger-like folds which are
microscopic and they effectively increase the
surface area of the cell and are useful in
absorption and secretion functions so that they
can easily attach the materiasl that are entering or
exiting the cell.
● Has different membrane proteins:
○ Transport Proteins – materials passing
across the membrane
○ Enzymes – participate in metabolic
processes
○ Recognition Proteins – serve as “name
tags” for the immune system to recognize
their own cells
○ Adhesion Proteins – cells that stick to one
another
○ Receptor Proteins – bind to molecules
outside the cell
○ Attachment to the cytoskeleton

3. Cytoplasm (AC/PC) ● Contains a jelly substance known as the cytosol

● Holds the organelles in place
● Serves as medium for the transport of substances
such as electrolytes, metabolites, ribonucleic acids
and synthesize proteins.
● Carotenoids is the reason for different coloers in
the Chromoplast

B. GENECTIC CONTROL
PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTIONS / FUNCTIONS
 1. Nucleus (AC/PC) ● “Brain of the Cell”
● Controls all cellular processes
● Contains DNA (genetic material); deoxyribonucleic acid,
is the hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person's body
has the same DNA.
● Has subparts:
○ Nuclear membrane - is a double membrane
that encloses the cell nucleus. It serves to
separate the chromosomes from the rest of the
cell.
○ Nucleoplasm - type of protoplasm that is
composed of thick fluid and constitutes
chromatin fibers made up of DNA and usually
found in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cells.
Main function is to store DNA and enable DNA-
dependent processes such as transcription to
occur in a controlled environment.
○ Nucleolus - a region found within the cell
nucleus that is concerned with producing and
assembling the cell's ribosomes.

1. NUCLEAR ENEVELOPE - It serves as the protection in the name of nuclearment

2. NUCLEOLUS - Contains the materials needed when it comes to the synthesis being observed by the
different cell organells. Examples of this are materials needed for Protein synthesis
3. NUCLEAR PORES - A means for specific cell organelles to connect other cell organelles and to let the
materials pass through it going to the nucleus and moving out of the nucleus
4. CHROMATIN - the material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria (i.e., eukaryotes)
are composed. It consists of protein, RNA, and DNA.

C. MANUFACTURE, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION AND BREAKDOWN

PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTIONS / FUNCTIONS
1. Ribosomes (AC/PC)
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
(AC/PC)
3. Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) (AC/PC)
4. Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER) (AC/PC)
5. Golgi Apparatus / Golgi Body
(AC/PC)
● Structures that manufacture proteins inside the
cell
● The site of Protein Syntheis
● Not considered as an organelle but it greatly
contributes to the different cell organelles and
maintain other functions in order to synthesize
proteins
● It always start at the nucleus
● The information will be decoded by the MRNA.
The molecules in the cells carry the code. What
will happen is that after that, once the information
is decoded by the MRNA, it will move out of the
nucleus until it reaches the ribosome. Reaching
the ribosome will be the creation/synthesis of the
protein based on the information by the MRNA.
● Protein Syntehsis is important for the survival of
the organism. Without protein synthesis, the
membrane proteins will not produce hence it will
affect the transport of materials approaching the
cell, therefore, later on, all the cell organelles.
● Interconnected network of thin and
folded membranes
● Contains Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum
● Contains ribosomes
● Produces secretory proteins
● Some Produce secretory proteins are being
delivered to the Golgi Apparatus for modifcation,
packaging, and distribution of cells from their
proper destination
● Without ribosomes
● Produces lipids
● Responsible when it comes to extensive arrays of
function carbohydrates and lipid synthesis.
● LIPID SYNTHESIS: Containing a number of lipids,
they are Testis and Ovaries. They happen here
because the right amount of proteins needs to be
produced.
● Also contributes to the detoxifying drugs and
poison in the liver hence there are a number of
Smooth ER in the liver in order to function.
● Flattened sheets of sacs and tubes is of
course a membrane bound and consisting of
different ponds, in which it has cis face and trans
 face. The difference between the two is the
orientation: If its cis, it is facing the endoplasmis
reticulum. If it is trans, it is facing away from the
Endoplasmic Reticulum and is facing the
cytoplasm. Lumen serves as the entry of the
materials being from transported by the ER up to
the GB; It serves as a storage
● Modifies, sorts, and packages different
substances because once they are delivered at
the other parts of the cells, they can eb easily
delivered and be admitted by the specific cell
organelles. Either it goes to the cis face and trans
face.

6. Vacuoles (PC) ● Store cell sap which contains water, organic, and
inorganic substances
● Vacuoles in plant cells are larger than those in
an animal cell

7. Vesicles (AC) ● Smaller versions of vacuoles

● Carry monomer molecules and packed
substances

8. Lysosomes (AC) ● Spherical-shaped

● “Digestive sacs”
● Uses lysozyme, an enzyme, that breaks down
molecule polymers and defective cell parts
● It is called the term “suicide bomb”
○ Because theyre enzymes are capable of
digestive enzymes so if they want to break
down molecule polymers then they burst
and digestive enzymes are released and
they start the digesting theyre on cells.
○ It is linked to the death of the cell because
the enzymes consist of dead cells.
○ It is associated with the death of the cells
because once it bursts, all of the contents
of the Lysosome, will be automatically
scattered to the other cell organelles,
hence will be affeced. They are filled with
defective cells and foreign materials that
migh affect both the function and the
overall cell; waste products.

9. Peroxisomes (AC/PC) ● Contains hydrogen peroxide that metabolizes

lipids
● Removes hydrogen molecules to oxygen
 molecules in order to produce Hydrogen Peroxide
● It metabolizes lipids and also detoxifies alcohol in
the liver.

D. ENERGY PROCESSING
PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTIONS / FUNCTIONS

1. Mitochondria (AC/PC) ● Sausage-like shaped organel

● “Powerhouse of the Cell”
● Gives energy (Adenosine Triphosphate) to the cell
● Cristae – folds of inner membrane
● This is also the site of cellular respiration; a
metabolic process that uses oxygen to drive
generation of ATP by extracting energy whether it
would be sugar, fats, or other fluids.

2. Plastids (AC/PC) ● Site to produce glucose via photosynthesis

● Has different types:
○ Chloroplast – contains green pigment
○ Chromoplast – contains red, yellow, and
orange pigments
○ Leucoplast – non-pigmented
●

E. SUPPORT, MOVEMENT, AND COMMUNICATION

PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTIONS / FUNCTIONS

1. Cytoskeleton (AC/PC) ● Filamentous / fiber-like

● Gives support and structure
● Has different types:
○ Microfilament – made up of
actin
○ Intermediate Filament –
made up of protein
subunits
○ Microtubule – made up of
tubulin

2. Centrioles (AC/PC) ● Made up of microtubules

● Produce spindle fibers for cell division

3. Cell Junctions (AC/PC) ● Provide a way in which cells can communicate

with other cells
● For plant cells, they communicate through the
 plasmodesmata
● For animal cells, they use gap junctions and have
different types:
○ Tight Junction – allows biochemicals to
move
○ Anchoring Junction – connection between
cells like a rivet
○ Gap Junction – protein channel and allows
exchange of ions, nutrients, and other
molecules
● TYPES OF CELLS JUNCTIONS:
○ Plasmodeta - Cell junctions found in
plants.
○ Tight Junction - uses protein as a
permeable barrier and can be commonly
found in the digestive tract.
○ Anchoring Junctions - connects cells like
a rivet. It helps the idea of stimulus
response because it helps to improve
communication and transportation of cells
○ GAP JUNCTIONS - protein channel that
allows exchange of ions, nutrients, and
other molecules. This can be found in our
heart.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS VS. EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 Figure 1.5 Prokaryotic Cell (left) and Eukaryotic Cell (right)

Differences between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

· Prokaryotes are organisms made · Eukaryotes are organisms made up

up of cells that lack a cell nucleus
or any membrane-enclosed
organelles.
· Nucleoids contain the genetic
material of prokaryotes in the
cytoplasm. The nucleoids usually
consist of a single chromosome.
· Special: Nucleoids, Pilus,
Capsule, Flagellum, Plasma
membrane, Cell Wall
of cells that possess a membrane-
bound nucleus that holds genetic
material as well as membrane-
bound organelles.
· A nucleus is a membrane-bound
organelle that houses the genetic
material of eukaryotes in DNA.
· Special: Nucleus, Lysosome,
Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmatic
Reticulum, DNA, Cell Membrane

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

MAJOR CELL PARTS PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

CAPSULE DESCRIPTION:
It is a sticky outermost layer
that is made up of
polysaccharides

FUNCTION:
1. Protection from
other organisms
2. Resistance
3. Prevents
dehydration
4. Cell adhesion to
surfaces and
nutrients

CELL WALL DESCRIPTION: DESCRIPTION:

It is stiff, located below the
capsule (if there is any). It is
made up of peptdoglycan.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Maintain the shape
of cell
2. Protects the cells
interior and prevent
it from bursting
It is arranged in layers and is
composed of Cellulose.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Surrounds the
plasma membrane
2. Provides cell
tensile strength
against mechanical
and osmotoc stress

PLASMA MEMBRANE DESCRIPTION

It is a phospholipid bilayer. It regulates the flow of substances the flow of substances in and
out of the cell by being semi-permeable

DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION

It is located below the cell It is located between the It serves as a barrier to
wall. cell’s cytoplasm and the cell protect the internal structure
wall of the cell to external factors.
NOTE:
Some archael membranes are
only a single layer of lipids
that allow the bacteria to
survive at high temperatures
like in hot springs.

Cytoplasm DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION

Contains a jelly substance Contains a jelly substance Contains a jelly substance
known as the cytosol. known as the cytosol. known as the cytosol.

FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION

Holds the organelles in place
and serves as medium for the
transport of substances such
as electrolytes, metabolites,
ribonucleic acids and
synthesize proteins.
Holds the organelles in place
and serves as medium for the
transport of substances such
as electrolytes, metabolites,
ribonucleic acids and
synthesize proteins.
Holds the organelles in place
and serves as medium for the
transport of substances such
as electrolytes, metabolites,
ribonucleic acids and
synthesize proteins.
 Nucleus DESCRIPTION
A nucleus is a membrane-
bound organelle that houses
the genetic material of
eukaryotes in DNA.
DESCRIPTION
A nucleus is a membrane-
bound organelle that houses
the genetic material of
eukaryotes in DNA.

FUNCTION FUNCTION
Controls all cellular Controls all cellular
processes processes

Nucleoid Region DESCRIPTION

Nucleoids contain the genetic
material of prokaryotes in the
cytoplasm. The nucleoids
usually consist of a single
chromosome.

FUNCTION
The nucleoid is essential for
controlling the activity of the
cell and reproduction. It is
where transcription and
replication of DNA take
place.

CELL TYPES AND MODIFICATIONS

For an organism to grow and develop, the cells need to perform their unique functions. When
cells combine and perform one function, they are called tissues. In this lesson, we will be
understanding the different types of cells in different tissues found in animals and plants.
 ANIMAL TISSUES

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUES

These types of tissues are commonly found as covering of different organs. Epithelial
cells are described according to their shapes and arrangement. The functions of the epithelial
tissues: protection, absorption, secretion, and excretion.

2. CONNECTIVE TISSUES

The main functions of these tissues: connects, supports, transports materials etc. The
examples of connective tissues are ligaments, tendons, fats, bones, cartilage, and blood.

Table 1.2 Different connective tissues and their descriptions.

 NAME OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES DESCRIPTIONS

1. Ligaments Attaches bone to bone

2. Tendons Attaches muscle to bone

3. Fats Composed of fat (adipose) cells for

insulation

4. Bones For movement, support, and framework of

the body

5. Cartilage Provides support to the body

6. Blood Has three types:

· Erythrocytes (RBC) – transport of
nutrients
· Leukocytes (WBC) – defend the
body from foreign bodies
· Thrombocytes (Platelets) – blood-
clotting

3. MUSCULAR TISSUES

There are three kinds of muscular tissues: skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and
cardiac muscles:
● Skeletal muscles are striated, and multinucleated which aid in movements.
● Smooth muscles are non-striated, and multinucleated that function inside the human
body.
● Cardiac muscles are striated and uninucleated that help in pumping blood in the body.

4. NERVOUS TISSUES
These are responsible for the reception and transmission of the impulses.
 Plant Tissues

1.) PROTECTIVE TISSUES

PROTECTIVE TISSUES COMPOSITION FUNCTION

1. Epidermis Epidermal Cells Outer covering of young plants

2. Peridermis Phellem / Cork Cells Outer covering of matured plants

2. GROUND TISSUES
 GROUND TISSUES COMPOSITION FUNCTION

1. Parenchyma Parenchyma Cells Photosynthesis, storage, and gas

exchange

2. Collenchyma Collenchyma Cells Primary cell wall and support

3. Sclerenchyma Sclerenchyma Cells Secondary cell wall

3. VASCULAR TISSUES

VASCULAR TISSUES COMPOSITION FUNCTION

1. Xylem Xylem parenchyma and Water-conducting tissue

sclerenchyma fibers

2. Phloem Phloem parenchyma and phloem Food-conducting tissue

fibers

5. MERISTERMATIC TISSUES
 These are composed of active cells that continue to undergo cell division and mostly
foundin th roots of plants.

ARE VIRUSES LIVING ORGANISMS

1. To classify a living organism, it should have most of the following properties:
a. Composed of one or more cells
 b. It should have homeostasis
c. Ability to create and regulate energy
d. To grow
e. To adapt to new environments by evolution
f. To respond to stimuli, and the ability to reproduce.
2. Viruses dont meet any of the requirements for being alive:
a. It not a cell
b. it doesnt have homeostasis
c. it can't make energy
d. it can't adapt to new environment,
e. it can't evolve,
f. it can’t reproduce on its own.
3. All of them beiing carried out by viruses occur only after the virus enters a cell. That is
why they are known as obligate intracellular parasitesz. In order to produce more
viruses, they must physicaly enter a cell.
4. The virus genetic information, whether DNA or RNA, emers the cell and reprograms it so
that all of the cell’s processes are now directed toward virus production.
5. A virus is an organism that has two phases:
a. The virus particle, which can be as simple as a poliovirus or as large as pandora
viruses with hige genomes and complicated structure. The virus particle can’t do
anything; it cam’t reproduce or evolve unless it enters a cell.
b. Once the virus has infiltrated a cell, the virus is infected by a virus. The living cell
has been programmed to produce virus particles. In many cases, an infection will
kill the virus-infected cell, but until that happens, it is very much alive and
producing new virus particles.
6. A virus particle has the potential to be alive once it enters the cell.
7. In short, viruses are not living organisms. If you ask why, we'll go back to the seven
characteristics of life. These characteristics are the basis on how you can identify if one
organism is living or not. For viruses naman, they are not considered as living organisms
since they do not pass all the characteristics. viruses are unable to replicate and are
unable to survive if they do not live in a living organism such as humans. Also, without
the existence of cells, viruses would not be able to reproduce. They also cannot carry
out metabolic processes. They cannot produce energy or control internal environments.
So, by these definitions of life, viruses are not alive.
ANIMAL
TISSUES
1. EPITHEAL TISSUES
The epithelium is a type of body tissue that covers all of your body's internal and
external surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs is the major tissue in glands.
a. Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flat scale-shaped cells. Both
the endothelial lining of blood vessels and the mesothelial lining of the body
cavities are simple squamous epithelium.
b. Simple cuboidal epithelium is made up of single layer cells that are as tall as
they are wide. The basic cuboidal epithelium's two primary functions are
secretion and absorption. This epithelial type can be found in the collecting
ducts of the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.
c. Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of tall and thin columnar epithelial
cells with oval-shaped nuclei in the basal region, linked to the basement
membrane. Simple columnar epithelium lines the majority of to mve tract organs
in humans, including the stomach and intestines.
d. Stratified squamous epithelium top layer is made up of squamous epithelial
cells, and the deeper layer has cuboidal or columnar cells. Some squamous
epithelium has heavily keratinized parts, while the rest are little to non keratinized
e. Stratified cuboidal epithelia is an uncommon kind of epithelial tissue made up
of cuboidal-shaped cells that are organized in layers. They protect sweat gland
ducts, mammary glands, and salivary glands, among other things.
f. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium are tissues that are made up of a single
layer of cells but appear to be made up of many layers when viewed in cross
section. These epithelial cells' nuclei are at different levels, giving the
appearance of stratification. This tissue, on the other hand, is made of a single
layer of cells and while the cells do not share a common apical surface, each cell
is in contact with the basement membrane.
g. Stratified columnar epithelium is a rare type of epithelial tissue composed of
column-shaped cells arranged in multiple layers. It is found in the conjunctiva,
pharynx, anus, and male urethra. It also occurs in embryos.
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
a. Dense connective tissue connects muscles to bones and connects bones at
joints. Specialized connective tissue includes a variety of tissues with specialized
cells and distinct ground substances. Some are solid and strong, while others are
fluid and flexible. Dense connective tissue is frequently classified into two types:
dense irregular connective tissue and dense regular connective tissue. Dense
regular connective tissue includes structures such as ligaments and tendons,
whereas dense irregular connective tissue is found throughout the body.
b. Adipose tissue (connective tissue) is commonly known as body fat. It is found
all over the body. It can be found under the skin (subcutaneous fat), packed
around internal organs (visceral fat), between muscles, within bone marrow and
in breast tissue. Function: Adipose tissue helps to store energy in the form of fat,
cushion internal organs, and insulate the body. There are three types of adipose
tissue: white, brown, and beige adipose.
c. Areolar tissue (connective tissue) is a fibrous connective tissue with the fibers
arranged in a mesh or net. Areolar Tissue holds organs in place and attaches
epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues. It also serves as a reservoir of water
and salts for surrounding tissues.
d. Compact Bones (connective tissue), also known as cortical bone, is a denser
element that makes up the majority of the skeleton's hard structure. Cancellous
or spongy bone makes up the rest of the bone. It also produces the hard outer
covering of all bones and to surround the medullary cavity, or bone marrow.
Bones are protected and strengthened by it.
e. Blood (connective tissue) is a fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to the
cells and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products. The three main
functions of a blood is to transport, protect and regulate. The main functions of
these tissues: connects, supports, and transports materials. The examples of
connective tissues are ligaments, tendons, fats, bones, cartilage, and blood.
3. MUSCULAR TISSUES
There are three muscular tissues which are the cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, and
lastly, the smooth muscle:
a. The Cardiac Muscle is commonly known as the heart muscle or myocardium, it
is an involuntary, striated muscle that makes up the primary tissue of the heart’s
wall. The thick central layer of the heart is made up of the Cardiac Muscle. The
epicardium, also known as the visceral pericardium, and an inner endocardium
surround the myocardium. Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle,
while cardiac veins drain it. Cardiac muscle contractions are well-coordinated
and pump blood into the circulatory system’s arteries. The functions of the
cardiac muscle are:
i. Contraction - the heart muscles function around the clock, day and night.
They work automatically causing our heart to contract to squeeze the
blood vessels, then release to allow the heart to refill with blood. It uses
involuntary movements to keep our heart functioning.
ii. The heart contains a specialized type of cardiac tissue containing
“pacemaker” cells. This helps in the contraction and expansion in
response to electrical impulses from the nervous system. It generates
electrical impulses, or action potentials, that tell cardiac muscle cells to
contract and relax.
iii. This is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The cells in our brain
and cells embedded throughout your heart act to release well-timed
nervous impulses which signal your heart cells to contract in the correct
pattern.
b. The Skeletal Muscle is also called voluntary muscle. It is the most common of
the three types of muscle in the body. This is attached to bones by tendons, and
they produce all the movements of body parts concerning each other. Similar to
cardiac muscle, however, skeletal muscle is striated; it has long, thin,
multinucleated fibers that are crossed with a regular pattern of fine red and white
lines, giving our muscle a distinctive appearance. Skeletal muscle fibers are
bound together by connective tissue and communicate with nerves and blood
vessels. The functions of the Skeletal Muscle are the following:
i. Skeletal Muscles are striated, and multinucleated which aid in
movements. It maintains the shape and form of the skeletal system and
supports the overall structure and posture of the body. Skeletal Muscles
are known to consist of muscle fibers and connective tissues that protect
and wrap the joints in our body and pull them to give way for movement
and flexibility. This is responsible for being the “body wall” or cushioning
internal organs from force applied to the exterior of the body.
ii. Skeletal Muscles aid in pulling the bones that cause joint movement, the
pull of soft facial tissues that stimulate facial expressions, and motion
caused by respiratory muscles that allow breathing. Skeletal muscle
fibers contract and allow the bones to be categorized into two; slow-twitch
 and fast-twitch fibers. Slow-twitch fibers contract at a slow rate which
helps in particular activities that involve endurance like aerobics, jogging,
and sports. Fast-twitch fibers are muscle fibers that contract at a fast rate
and can produce power and perform fast repetitive contractions. Mainly
used in sprints, weightlifting, and the like.
c. The Smooth Muscle - this is an involuntary, non-striated type of (vertebrate)
muscle capable of slow rhythmic involuntary contractions. Smooth muscle, also
called an involuntary muscle, displays no cross stripes when examined under a
microscope. It is made up of spindle-shaped narrow cells with a single centrally-
located nucleus. Smooth muscles contract involuntarily and slowly. A great part
of internal organs and the majority of the area of the digestive tract is lined with
smooth muscles. It functions through the following:
i. Smooth muscles also contract and thereby enable movement. For
instance, the smooth muscles in the gut enable the food (bolus) to move
through the digestive tract. The smooth muscle tissue functions on its
own without letting the body consciously know about it. This is because it
is controlled by signals from the autonomous nervous system. Imagine if
breathing through our lungs has to be a conscious effort. Through smooth
muscles, we can breathe without having to do it every time at will.
ii. This helps in regulating homeostasis - Arrector pili muscles, for instance,
are the smooth muscles attached to the skin hair follicles, that help
regulate body temperature by raising the hair on the skin when it’s cold.
This enables the skin to generate body heat. Its characteristics are
involuntarily controlled, not striated, not branched, and it is single
nucleated. The walls of hollow visceral organs are the liver, pancreas,
and intestines where we can find the smooth muscle.
4. NERVOUS TISSUES
a. It is responsible for reception and transmission of impulses so a nerve impulse is
a way that neurons communicate with one another. Nerve impulses, which are
considered as mostly electrical signals along the dendrites to produce a nerve
impulse or action potential that is why it is observing the idea of the stimulus
response , action as well as the fight or flight response, which are considered the
results of differences of nervous tissues. Nervous tissue is the term of groups of
organized cells in the nervous systems, which is the organ system that controls
our body movement, sends and carries signals to and from the different parts of
the body and has a role when it comes to bodily functions such as digestion and
other biological processes in our body. They are grouped into two main
categories:
i. Neurons were nerves transmit electrical impulse
ii. Neuroglia do not but many other functions including support and
protecting neurons
b. Parts of the Nervous Tissue:
i. Dendrote
ii. Neuron
 iii. Cell Body
iv. Nucleus
v. Axon
vi. Microglial cells
vii. Foots Processes
viii. Astrocyte
ix. Oligodendricyte
x. Axon
xi. Myelin Sheath

5. VASCULAR TISSUES
Two primary vascular tissues, the Xylem and the Phloem. First, the Xylem is composed
of the Xylem parenchyma, which can store water, and the sclerenchyma fibers, which
protect the vascular bundles.
a. The xylem tissue is crucial for the plant's support, storage, and transportation of
water and nutrients. Tracheids (conducting cells) and parenchyma (supporting
filler tissue) make up the tissue. End-to-end connections are made between
these cells to produce long tubes. The secondary cell walls of tracheids are thick
and tapered at the ends. Its strong walls offer support for the plant and help it
grow to impressive heights. Tall plants have a selective advantage over shorter
plants because they can reach unfiltered sunlight and further disseminate their
spores or seeds, extending their range.
b. Phloem tissues are composed of Phloem parenchyma, also called transfer cells
and border parenchyma cells, and phloem fibers, which are formed in the stems
of many fiber-crops. As we can see in the third column, these are food
conducting tissues. The phloem tissue in plants is the primary pathway for long-
distance transport of assimilates from source to sink organs, distributing
carbohydrates produced in source tissues through photosynthesis and starch
hydrolysis to sink tissues where they support growth and respiration or are stored
as reserve compounds.
6. Meristematic Tissues composed of active cells that continue to undergo cell division
and mostly found in the roots of plants. In plants, the meristem is an area of cells
capable of division and growth. Meristems are responsible for wound healing because
they regenerate from other cells in wounded tissues. It is composed of four tissues:
a. Apical (at root and shoot tips), lateral (in the vascular and cork cambia), and
intercalary (at internodes, or stem sections between the locations at which leaves
attach, and leaf bases, notably of certain monocotyledons—e.g., grasses)
meristems are characterized by their position in the plant. First, the root and
shoot tips of plants have an apical meristem, at the root and shoot tips, which is a
region of cells that are capable of division and growth. Apical meristems are
responsible for the extension of the roots and shoots, as well as forming the
primary plant body. Unlike most animals, plants continue to grow throughout their
entire life span because of the unlimited division of these and other meristem.
b. Second, the secondary meristems or lateral meristems, located in the vascular
and cork cambia, are responsible for secondary growth, or an increase in the
girth and thickness of the stem.
c. Third, the intercalary meristem. This is located at internodes, or stem sections
between the locations at which leaves attach, and leaf bases, notably of certain
monocotyledons—e.g., grasses. This is a type of primary meristematic tissue that
aids in vertical growth by extending the length of a plant or tree. The cells in this
meristematic region are small, totipotent, thin-walled, and full of protoplasm
 PLANT
TISSUES
 1. PLANT STRUCTURES
a. The Epidermis is the outermost, protoderm-derived layer of cells covering the
leaf.
b. The Palisade Mesophyll layer is where most of the photosynthesis occurs in
the leaf.
c. Plant veins provide structure and support to plant leaves while also transporting
water, nutrients, and energy to the rest of the plant.
d. Spongy mesophyll is the site of gaseous exchange for photosynthesis and
respiration.
e. Moist air space is a tortuous environment consisting of cells of different shapes,
packing densities, and orientation.
f. Stomata are pores on the surface of the leaves and other aerial parts of most
higher plants that allow uptake of CO2 for photosynthesis and the loss of water
vapor from the transpiration stream.
g. Guard cells are cells surrounding each stoma. They help to regulate the rate of
transpiration by opening and closing the stomata.
2. SECOND XYLEM
a. Secondary xylem is a complex tissue that consists of important living
components.
i. The vascular cambium is the main growth tissue in the stems and roots
of many plants, specifically in dicots such as buttercups and oak trees,
gymnosperms such as pine trees, as well as in certain other vascular
plants.
ii. The secondary phloem is a type of phloem that forms from the vascular
cambium during the secondary growth. The secondary growth is
responsible for the growth in birth in plants, especially trees. The vascular
cambium is the meristematic tissue involved in this type of growth.
iii. Stoma any of the minute pores in the epidermis of the leaf or stem of a
plant, forming a slit of variable width which allows movement of gases in
and out of the intercellular spaces.

TWO TYPES OF TISSUE IN PLANT TISSUES:

3. PROTECTIVE TISSUES
a. Epidermis is the outermost, protoderm-derived layer of cells covering the stem,
root, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed parts of a plant. Under composition, Epidermal
Cells consist of three cells including the following:
i. Pavement Cells are tightly packed together, pavement cells serve to
prevent excess water loss.
ii. Stomatal Guard Cells control the closing and opening of the stomata
pore, which in turn, regulates gaseous exchange in and out of the leaves.
iii. Trichomes either serve as a barrier that protects inner tissues of leaves
or a mechanism that traps or poisons the animal to protect the plant.
With the three cells,
 iv. Epidermal Cells primary role is to protect from a variety of harmful
factors including microbes, chemical compounds as well as ultraviolet
light among others. Overall, Epidermis functions as the outer covering of
the young plants; The epidermis and its waxy cuticle provide a protective
barrier against mechanical injury, water loss, and infection.
b. Peridermis is the secondary dermal tissue (periderm) that replaces the epidermis along
older stems and roots.
i. Phellem/cork is a tissue formed on the outer side of phellogen or cork cambium.
(suberized cells)
ii. Phellogen is the source of the periderm, a protective tissue that replaces the
epidermis when the secondary growth displaces, and ultimately destroys, the
epidermis of the primary plant body.
iii. Phelloderm is a layer of parenchyma produced by the cork cambium, an inner
secondary cortex of the cork cambium. Phelloderm is generated by the phellogen.
It can contain chlorophyll and function in defense. These persistent living cells
are structurally similar to cells of the cortex. The periderm is a frontier tissue and
its main function is to protect the plant against biotic and abiotic stress, similar to
the epidermis during primary development. In particular, it effectively restricts:
gas exchange, water loss and pathogen attack.

4. GROUND TISSUES
a. PARENCHYMA is a type of simple permanent tissue found in plants' ground tissues,
where other tissues such as vascular tissues are embedded. They are non-vascular and
made up of undifferentiated, live cells that have been manipulated to serve diverse
activities. Under composition, Parenchyma Cells are living, permanent tissues with the
potential to divide when they reach maturity, and they aid in wound regeneration and
healing. As reproductive cells (spores, gametes) are parenchymatous in nature,
parenchyma cells form the base of a plant. A zygote's single parenchyma cell has the
power to grow into a complete plant. Most of the plant's metabolic functions, such as
storage of energy, waste products, support for photosynthesis, and gaseous exchange

b. COLLENCHYMA have thick deposits of cellulose in their cell walls and appear
polygonal in the cross section. prismatic cells that are commonly elongated and can occur
in long strands or cylinders. Under composition, Collenchyma cells are elongated cells
with irregularly thick cell walls that provide support and structure. Their thick cell walls
are composed of the compounds cellulose and pectin. These cells are often found under
the epidermis, or the outer layer of cells in young stems and in leaf veins.In plants,
support tissue of living elongated cells with irregular cell walls. Overall, Collenchyma
provides support, structure, mechanical strength, and flexibility to the petiole, leaf veins,
and stem of young plants, allowing for easy bending without breakage.

c. SLERENCHYMA are rigid and nonstretchable cells and are usually found in
nongrowing regions of plant bodies, such as the bark or mature stems. Sclerenchyma
 cells occur in many different shapes and sizes, but two main types occur: fibres and
sclereids. Fibres occur in bundles or strands and can be found almost anywhere in the
plant body, including the stem, the roots, and the vascular bundles in leaves. Sclereids
occur in leaves and fruits and constitute the hard shell of nuts and the outer hard coat of
many seeds. Sometimes known as stone cells, sclereids are also responsible for the gritty
texture of pears and guavas. Sclerenchyma cells have thick, lignified secondary walls,
lack cell contents at maturity, and occur throughout all plant tissues. These features make
sclerenchyma tissues hard, rigid, and somewhat brittle. Sclerenchyma cells can occur as
aggregates within ground tissue (sclereids or stone cells or as elongated fibers. In plants,
support tissue is composed of any of various kinds of hard woody cells. Mature
sclerenchyma cells are usually dead cells that have heavily thickened secondary walls
containing lignin.

5. VASCULAR TISSUES
Two primary vascular tissues, the Xylem and the Phloem. First, the Xylem is composed
of the Xylem parenchyma, which can store water, and the sclerenchyma fibers, which
protect the vascular bundles.
a. The xylem tissue is crucial for the plant's support, storage, and transportation of
water and nutrients. Tracheids (conducting cells) and parenchyma (supporting
filler tissue) make up the tissue. End-to-end connections are made between
these cells to produce long tubes. The secondary cell walls of tracheids are thick
and tapered at the ends. Its strong walls offer support for the plant and help it
grow to impressive heights. Tall plants have a selective advantage over shorter
plants because they can reach unfiltered sunlight and further disseminate their
spores or seeds, extending their range.
b. Phloem tissues are composed of Phloem parenchyma, also called transfer cells
and border parenchyma cells, and phloem fibers, which are formed in the stems
of many fiber-crops. As we can see in the third column, these are food
conducting tissues. The phloem tissue in plants is the primary pathway for long-
distance transport of assimilates from source to sink organs, distributing
carbohydrates produced in source tissues through photosynthesis and starch
hydrolysis to sink tissues where they support growth and respiration or are stored
as reserve compounds.

6. Meristematic Tissues composed of active cells that continue to undergo cell division
and mostly found in the roots of plants. In plants, the meristem is an area of cells
capable of division and growth. Meristems are responsible for wound healing because
they regenerate from other cells in wounded tissues. It is composed of four tissues:
a. Apical (at root and shoot tips), lateral (in the vascular and cork cambia), and
intercalary (at internodes, or stem sections between the locations at which leaves
attach, and leaf bases, notably of certain monocotyledons—e.g., grasses)
meristems are characterized by their position in the plant. First, the root and
 shoot tips of plants have an apical meristem, at the root and shoot tips, which is a
region of cells that are capable of division and growth. Apical meristems are
responsible for the extension of the roots and shoots, as well as forming the
primary plant body. Unlike most animals, plants continue to grow throughout their
entire life span because of the unlimited division of these and other meristem.
b. Second, the secondary meristems or lateral meristems, located in the vascular
and cork cambia, are responsible for secondary growth, or an increase in the
girth and thickness of the stem.
c. Third, the intercalary meristem. This is located at internodes, or stem sections
between the locations at which leaves attach, and leaf bases, notably of certain
monocotyledons—e.g., grasses. This is a type of primary meristematic tissue that
aids in vertical growth by extending the length of a plant or tree. The cells in this
meristematic region are small, totipotent, thin-walled, and full of protoplasm

HOW ARE THE DIFFERENT CELL MODIFICATIONS HELP ORGANISMS TO ADAPT?

First, cell modification takes place in organisms that feel the pressure of natural selection and they
attempt to colonize new territory for the need of cell modification. The need for the advanced structure
and function are necessary so that they evolve with modified structure, so that they can fit with the
environment. This cell modification creates complex/supporting systems that are more versatile that allow
the organism with their freedom for colonization. One example is Photosynthesis. It is said that 3.5
billion years ago, this does not exist but when organism needed to adapt the ever-changing environment,
cell modificatio takes which created the complex/supporting system called photosynthesis, which then
changed the environment of the earth, which lacked an oxygen environment.

First, cell modification occurs in organisms that are subjected to natural selection and strive to
colonize new territory in order to satisfy their demand for cell modification. Advanced structure
and function are required in order for them to evolve with updated structure and to fit into the
environment. This cell mutation develops more adaptable complex/supporting systems, allowing
the organism to colonize with greater freedom. Photosynthesis is one such example. It is stated
that this did not exist 3.5 billion years ago, but as organisms needed to adapt to an ever-
changing environment, cell modification occurred, resulting in the complex/supporting system
known as photosynthesis, which then changed the earth's atmosphere, which lacked oxygen.